For a more comprehensive discussion of crime data, see C Coleman and J Moynihan, Understanding crime data: haunted by the dark figure, Buckingham: Open University Press, 1996.

For a more detailed argument of the relationship between crime and political transition, see M Shaw, Partners in crime? Crime, political transition and changing forms of policing control, Johannesburg: Centre for Policy Studies, 1995.

Crime rates are a more accurate reflection of changing crime levels, since they account for population variations and changes in population numbers over time. Rates are, however, only considered from 1994 onwards because police statistics are more accurate from that year when police crime data became computerised, enabling better updating and verification. This probably accounts for the sharp increases in reported crimes from 1994 onwards, reflected in figures 1–6.

a. The crime rates quoted here are based on the 1991 census, and projected for successive years. Preliminary results of the 1996 census were released after the report had been finalised, but indications were that crime rates were higher than stated here because national popoulation totals were lower than expected.

b. L Glanz, 'South African cities under siege', Indicator SA Crime and Conflict, 2, Winter 1995.

D Hindson, M Byerley and M Morris, From violence to reconstruction: the making, disintegration and remaking of an apartheid city, Centre for Social and Development Studies working paper no 10, Durban: University of Natal, 1993.

Glanz, 'South African cities under siege'.

A Louw and S Bekker, 'Conflict in the Natal region: a database approach', in S Bekker (ed), 'Capturing the event: conflict trends in the Natal region, 1986-1992', Indicator SA Issue Focus, 1992.

S Marks and N Andersson, 'The epidemiology and culture of violence', in N C Manganyi and A du Toit (eds), Political violence and the struggle in South Africa, Johannesburg: Southern, 1990.

J Brewer, 'Crime and control', in Brewer (ed), Restructuring South Africa, London: Macmillan, 1994.

The situation may not be as stark as the figures suggest, since white people are more likely to visit private hospitals than state hospitals, and these cases would not have been captured in this sample.

A Butchart et al, 'Epidemiology of non-fatal injuries due to external causes in Johannesburg–Soweto', South African Medical Journal, 79, 1991, p 479.

M Steenkamp and N Sidzumo, 'Women and violence: a metropolitan perspective', Trauma Review, 4 (2), August 1996.

Ibid.

J May, Experience and perceptions of poverty in South Africa, Data Research Africa working paper, 1996, p 129.

C Campbell, 'Social identity and violence in the domestic and political spheres: a gendered common denominator?' in Glanz and Spiegel (eds), Violence and family life in contemporary South Africa: research and policy issues, Pretoria: Human Sciences Research Council, 1996; T Angless and M Maconachie, 'Battered women: problems and proposals', in Glanz and Spiegel (eds), Violence and family life ... p 156.

Interviews in Kimberley and Galeshewe with superintendent Thuthuza, SAPS station commissioner in Galeshewe, and members of the Rape and Child Protection Units, 20/2/97; Mrs Palweni, Red Cross, 20/2/97; Mrs Mazibuko and Mrs Magwaza, Department of Health and Welfare, 21/2/97.

This is by no means the only or main reason for cases of assault or rape being withdrawn. See page 33, Thuthuza; Palweni; Mazibuko and Magwaza.

Ibid.

F C Ross, 'Vat jou goed en trek ...The effects of domestic violence on domesticity in an informal settlement', in Glanz and Spiegel (eds), Violence and family life..., p 38.

Human Rights Watch/Africa, Violence against women in South Africa: state response to domestic violence and rape, New York: Human Rights Watch, 1995, pp 52–3.

Human Sciences Research Council, Omnibus Survey, 1995.

Ibid.

G du Preez, 'Order and disorder in South Africa', unpublished paper presented to the annual conference of the African Studies Association of the United Kingdom, University of Stirling, 1992.

May, Experience and perceptions of poverty ..., p 63.

E D Breslin and P Delius, 'A comparative analysis of poverty and malnutrition in South Africa', Operation Hunger research report for the South African Participatory Poverty Assessment, February 1996, p 52. Interviews in Kimberley with Thandi Mfulo and Nthabiseng Kuoe, National Women's Coalition, 21/2/97, Thuthuza, and members of the Rape and Child Protection Units.

A Butchart, J Kruger and V Nell, 'Violence and injury in a Johannesburg township: a neighbourhood profile', forthcoming article in Indicator SA, Crime and Conflict, 9, 1997.

Human Rights Watch/Africa, Violence against women in South Africa ..., p 57.

F Ross, Assessment of the impact of fuel use on residents of an informal settlement, report prepared for chief directorate: energy, Department of Mineral and Energy Affairs, p 147.

October household survey 1995, Central Statistical Service release P0317, November 1996.

May, Experience and perceptions of poverty ..., p 105.

Data Research Africa survey for Telkom, 1997.

A Shaw, 'Methods and criticisms of evaluating the effectiveness of rural road projects in a developing country environment', unpublished MSc dissertation, University of the Witwatersrand, 1991, pp 135–138.

May, Experience and perceptions of poverty ..., p 80.

S Bekker and A Louw, 'Conflict and migration in KwaZulu-Natal', in D Hindson and J McCarthy, Here to stay: informal settlements in KwaZulu-Natal, Durban: Indicator Press, 1995.

Butchart et al, Violence and injury in a Johannesburg township ....

L Artz and N Levin, 'Children's budget: policing', Institute of Criminology, University of Cape Town and Community Peace Foundation, 1997, p 13.

Ibid.

Human Rights Watch/Africa, Violence against women in South Africa....

C D Shearing and D H Bayley, 'The future of policing', Law and Society Review, 30 (3), 1996, p 594.

May, Experience and perceptions of poverty ..., p 77.

S Stewart,'Making security last: the Eastern Cape community safety project', Indicator SA, Crime and Conflict, 7, Spring 1996.

May, Experience and perceptions of poverty ..., p 3.

Ibid, p 84.

Trauma Review, 1 (1), April 1993, p 4–5.

Trauma Review, 1 (2), August 1993, p 2.

May, Experience and perceptions of poverty ..., p 30.

B W McKendrick and V V Senoamadi, 'Some effects of violence on squatter camp families and their children', in Glanz and Spiegel (eds), Violence and family life ....

May, Experience and perceptions of poverty ..., p 30; World Bank, Violence and urban poverty in Jamaica: breaking the cycle, World Bank report, August 1996.

May, Experience and perceptions of poverty ....

Ibid, p 114.

Ibid, p 56.

Interview in Bisho with Ms Tyanti, director-general of Welfare, 11/3/97.

May, Experience and perceptions of poverty ..., p 55.

Ibid, p 52.

Ibid, p 50.

Ibid, p 49.

N Ramsden, 'Suffer little children', Indicator Conflict Supplement, no 3, September 1994.

Rapid review of socio-economic conditions in the Northern Cape, volume 1, prepared by Cole Consulting and Setplan for the Ministry of Economic Affairs and the RDP Office of Northern Cape province, July 1995, p 38.

Development Bank of Southern Africa, South Africa's nine provinces: a human development profile, Development Information Paper 28, March 1995.

The incidence of serious crime: January to December 1996, SAPS Crime Information Management Centre Quarterly Report 1/97, 4 March 1997. All further references to police statistics are drawn from this report.

Interviews with superintendent Thuthuza and members of the Rape and Child Protection Units, 20/2/97; Charl du Plessis, attorney-general, and Sharon Erasmus, prosecutor, 20/2/97; Johan Deyzel, Provincial SAPS commissioner, 20/2/97; Mrs Palweni, Red Cross, 20/2/97; Ntombi Mcetywa, Nicro, 21/2/97; Lydia Matsedisha and Magdalena Matsepane, National Council of African Women, 19/2/97; Eunice Komane, MEC for Safety and Security, 21/2/97.

The incidence of serious crime: January to December 1996.

South Africa's nine provinces: a human development profile, p 19.

Komane; Du Plessis and Erasmus.

Rapid review of socio-economic conditions in the Northern Cape.

Ibid.

DRA survey.

Komane; Du Plessis and Erasmus; Palweni.

O Marenin, 'Explaining patterns of crime in the native villages of Alaska', Canadian Journal of Criminology, July-October 1992, p 350.

Mazibuko and Magwaza; Jomo Bonokwane, Cosatu regional secretary, 19/2/97; Thuthuza; Du Plessis and Erasmus.

Confidential government survey, 1996.

Ibid. Interviews in Kimberley revealed similar opinions.

Ibid.

Mazibuko and Magwaza; Thuthuza; Matsedisha and Matsepane; Bonokwane; Deyzel; Mcetywa.

Rapid review of socio-economic conditions in the Northern Cape.

South Africa's nine provinces: a human development profile.

Marenin, 'Explaining patterns of crime ...,' p 340.

Confidential government survey.

Ibid.

In its Criminal statistics: England and Wales, 1995, for example, the UK Home Office publishes official statistics on homicide which reveal the sex and age of victims; the cause of death; the relationship between victim and offender; and the situation in which the crime occurred (such as 'quarrel, 'revenge or loss of temper'; in the course of a theft; gang warfare). A range of details are also available about murder suspects and offenders and their conviction profiles (distinctions are made for murder; manslaughter and infanticide).

Thuthuza.

Artz and Levin, 'Children's budget ...'

Deyzel.

Artz and Levin, 'Children's budget ...'

Thuthuza; Du Plessis and Erasmus; Deyzel; Palweni; Mcetywa; Matsedisha and Matsepane; Komane.

Thuthuza; Du Plessis and Erasmus; interview with Dr Muragasan, casualties department, Kimberley hospital, 19/297; Palweni; Mazibuko and Magwaza.

Du Plessis and Erasmus.

Palweni; Mfulo and Kuoe; Mazibuko and Magwaza.

Thuthuza; Palweni; Mazibuko and Magwaza.

World Bank, Violence and urban poverty in Jamaica.

Mazibuko and Magwaza; Komane.

World Bank, Violence and urban poverty in Jamaica.

B W McKendrick and W Hoffmann, People and violence in South Africa, Cape Town: David Philip, 1990.

Campbell, 'Social identity and violence in the domestic and political spheres ...'

Matsedisha and Matsepane; Thuthuza; Mazibuko and Magwaza.

Thuthuza.

Matsedisha and Matsepane; Mcetywa; Mfulo and Kuoe; G Dor, Report on the liquor trade in Northern Cape, prepared for the Department of Health and Welfare, Kimberley, December 1996.

L Rocha-Silva and I Stahmer, Research relating to the nature, extent and development of alcohol/drug-related crime, HSRC, October 1996, pp 4–15.

Muragasan; Deyzel; Du Plessis and Erasmus; Dor, Report on the liquor trade ..., p 24.

Komane; Matsedisha and Matsepane; Dor, Report on the liquor trade ..., p 17.

Muragasan; Deyzel. According to the SAPS in Durban, until 1996 murder figures included culpable homicide (negligent killing). This might explain Northern Cape's high murder rate. But this distinction rests heavily on police recording practices: deciding how to classify a murder rests with the court. Police figures would therefore have to be updated to reflect court findings well after the incident occurred.

This was mentioned as an example of the kind of conflict which, after excessive drinking, contributed to the many assault casualties attended to by Dr Muragasan at Kimberley hospital.

Cape Provincial Administration Medical Emergency Services; Metro North in Kimberley, January-December 1996.

C D H Parry, 'Alcohol misuse and public health: a 10-point action plan', MRC Policy Brief no 1, February 1997.

W Scharf, 'Liquor, the state and urban blacks', in D Davis and M Slabbert (eds), Crime and power in South Africa, Cape Town: David Philip, 1985, p 53.

W Scharf, 'Shebeens in the Cape Peninsula', in Davis and Slabbert (eds), Crime and power in South Africa, p 97.

P Scully, 'Liquor and labour in the Western Cape, 1870-1900', in J Crush and C Ambler (eds), Liquor and labour in South Africa, Pietermaritzburg: Universityof Natal Press, 1992.

Ibid, p 69.

Dor, Report on the liquor trade ..., p 18.

Ibid, pp 7–8.

Ibid, p 13.

Parry, Alcohol misuse and public health ....

L Harrison (ed), Alcohol problems in the community, London: Routledge, 1996, p 1.

The Cape Town metropolitan non-natural mortality study group and the health consulting office, Health Technology Research Group, Medical Research Council.

R Goodman et al, 'Alcohol use and interpersonal violence: alcohol detected in homicide victims', AJPH, 76 (2), February 1986.

M Peden, 'Alcohol and non-traffic trauma in Cape Town', Trauma Review, 4 (3), December 1996.

Steenkamp and Sidzumo, 'Women and violence ....'

See D C McBride and C B McCoy, 'The drugs–crime relationship: an analytical framework', The Prison Journal, 43 (3/4), 1993.

Rocha-Silva and Stahmer, Research relating to ....

'Alcohol and violence', editorial in The Lancet, 336, November 1990.

Rocha-Silva and Stahmer, Research relating to ..., p 4.

Interview in Bisho with Dennis Neer, MEC for Safety and Security, 11/3/97.

Interview in Umtata with L Kebeni, provincial Ministry of Safety and Security, 12/3/97.

Interview in Umtata with Kaya George, Independent Mediation Service of South Africa (Imsa), 12/3/97.

Development Bank of Southern Africa, Southern African population projections, 1995-2005, April 1991. This document estimates the de facto 1995 population of the Transkei at 2 254 350.

South African Police Service, Annual Plan, 1996/97.

Interview in Qumbu with Mr Moloi, CPF chairperson, 12/3/97.

T Jonker, 'Sinister forces behind killing fields of Tsolo', Weekend Post, 16/11/96.

For an overview of the violence, see Tsolo Battleground, Human Rights Committee Special Report 3, 1996.

Interview in Port Elizabeth with SAPS provincial commissioner Bezuidenhout, 10/3/97.

Confidential government survey.

Ibid.

Ibid.

For an overview of forms of authority in the former Transkei bantustan, see R Southall, South Africa's Transkei: the political economy of an 'independent' bantustan, London: Heinemann, 1982. For an overview of changing forms of authority in the bantustan, see J Peires, 'The implosion of Transkei and Ciskei', African studies seminar paper no 312, African Studies Institute, University of the Witwatersrand, May 1992. See also R J Haines, T P Tapscott, S B Solinjani and P Tyali, 'The silence of poverty: networks of control in rural Transkei', Second Carnegie Inquiry into Poverty and Development in Southern Africa, Saldru, University of Cape Town, April 1984.

G Cawthra, Policing South Africa: the SAP and the transition from apartheid, London: Zed, 1983, p 64.

A Spiegel, 'A trilogy of tyranny and tribulation: village politics and administrative intervention in Matatiele during the early 1980s', in A Donaldson, J Seger and R Southall (eds), Undoing independence: regionalism and the reincorporation of Transkei into South Africa, Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 11 (2), 1992, p 37.

Ibid.

E Muthien, 'Transkei: the end of the Verwoerdian dream?' Indicator SA, 8 (1), 1990.

For an overview of policing in the bantustans before 1994, see E Marais, 'Policing the periphery: police and society in South Africa's "homelands"'. paper presented to the 22nd congress of the Association for Sociology in South Africa, June 1992. On issues related to morale in the Transkei police, see J Wood, 'Public sector unionism and democratisation: the case of police and health unionism in Eastern Cape and the national implications thereof', unpublished paper, Department of Sociology and Industrial Sociology, Rhodes University.

Progress report on the transformation of the SAPS: Eastern Cape, January 1997.

Interview in Umtata with SAPS area commissioner Hayes, 13/3/97.

Ibid.

Progress report on the transformation of the SAPS: Eastern Cape, January 1997.

Hayes.

Bezuidenhout.

Ibid.

Interview in Umtata with Kaya Zweni, Lawyers for Human Rights, 12/3/97; Moloi.

Moloi; George; Qumbu SAPS station commissioner, 12/3/97.

Bezuidenhout.

Neer.

Ibid.

Report of the commission appointed to inquire into the Tsolo violence and related matters, 1995, pp 663–673.

Hayes.

Bezuidenhout.

The definition follows M Liddle and L Gelsthorpe, Inter-agency crime prevention: organising local delivery, crime prevention unit series, Home Office Police Research Group, London, 1994, p 52.

P Ekblom, 'Towards a discipline of crime prevention: a systematic approach to its nature, range and concepts', in T Bennett, Preventing crime and disorder: targeting strategies and responsibilities, University of Cambridge, Institute of Criminology, 1996, pp 47–49.

Adapted from ibid, p 50.

S Morris, Policing problem housing estates, Home Office Police Research Group, Vrime Detection and Prevention Series Paper 74, 1996.

Rocha-Silva and Stahmer, Research relating to ....

J Shepherd and M Brickley, 'The relationship between alcohol intoxication, stressors and injury in urban violence', British Journal of Criminology, 36 (4), Autumn 1996, found that the cases could only be differentiated from the control group on the basis that they drank more during an average weekend, they drank more on each weekend drinking session, and were more likely to binge drink compared to controls. Heavy binge drinking (as opposed to age, employment status, social class, social relationships and experience of major life events) was thus found to increase vulnerability to injury.

Rocha-Silva and Stahmer, Research relating to ..., pp 11–12.

Ibid.

M D Anglin and T H Maugh II, 'Ensuring success in interventions with drug-using offenders', Annals, AAPSS, 521 (May), pp 66–90, quoted in Rocha-Silva and Stahmer, Research relating to ..., p 19.

C D H Parry, 'Alcohol, drug abuse and public health in South Africa: policy considerations', chapter in forthcoming book on mental health policy in South Africa, edited by D Foster et al.

Ibid, p 25.

Rocha-Silva and Stahmer, Research relating to ....

National Crime Prevention Strategy, Re-engineering the criminal justice system (pre-scoping), final report, August 1996.

For an overview of blockages in the criminal justice system, see M Shaw, 'South Africa: crime in transition', in W Gutteridge and J Spence (eds), Terrorism and political violence, special issue on violence in southern Africa, 8(4), Winter 1996. See also M Shaw, Safety and security situation report, United Nations Development Programme, January 1997.

National Crime Prevention Strategy, May 1996.

A growing literature covers the evaluation and audit of crime prevention initiatives. For two excellent recent contributions to the literature, see P Ekblom and K Pease, 'Evaluating crime prevention', Crime and justice: building a safer society - strategic approaches to crime prevention, 19, 1995. See also P Ekblom, 'Towards a discipline of crime prevention: a systematic approach to its nature, range and concepts', in T Bennett, Preventing crime and disorder: targeting strategies and responsibilities, University of Cambridge, Institute of Criminology, 1996.

I Olckers, 'Women's budget', 1997.

L Jackson, 'Recent initiatives to address gender violence in South Africa', ISS Papers no 14, January 1997.

Olckers, 'Women's budget'.

Jackson, 'Recent initiatives ...'.

Ibid.

Ibid.

L Muntingh and R Shapiro (eds), Diversions: an introduction to diversion from the criminal justice system, third revised edition, Nicro, 1997, p 2.

Inter-ministerial Committee on Young People at Risk, Interim policy recommendations, Pretoria, November 1996.

Juvenile justice for South Africa: proposals for policy and legislative change, Juvenile Justice Drafting Consultancy, Institute of Criminology, University of Cape Town, November 1994.

Inter-ministerial Committee on Young People at Risk, Interim policy recommendations, p 38.

J Schmid, 'Targets of public anger', Indicator Crime and Conflict, No 3, Spring 1995.

National Crime Prevention Strategy, p 61.

Interview with Ann Skelton, Lawyers for Human Rights, Durban, 21/5/97.

Skelton; telephonic interview with Rosemary Shapiro, Nicro, 14/5/97.

Artz and Levin,'Children's budget: policing ...'.

Muntingh and Shapiro (eds), Diversions ....

Ibid.

Skelton.

Shapiro.

Telephone interview with Koenie du Toit, Department of Welfare, 15/5/97.

Skelton.

Ministry of Safety and Security, Report of the committee into the decentralisation of policing functions and devolution of policing powers – draft interim report, 27 April 1997.