SCOPE

The aim of this article is to highlight the importance of a liberal university education and the participation of civilian academics in the development of military officers. The role and nature of tertiary education in officer development, the importance and nature of academic freedom in university education, and the contribution of civilian academic staff to military university education, with reference to trends at military academies and universities internationally, are analysed.

BACKGROUND

South Africa’s transition to a democratic society was characterised by an intensive debate on civilian and political control over the armed forces. In the debate, civilian control was defined as "... a condition to be achieved which ensures that the military operate in accordance with the constitution and the wishes of parliament."2 Realising this condition depends on the presence of effective mechanistic and behavioural instruments of civilian control over the military. Mechanistic or objective control measures may be regarded as those imposed by structures, roles, functions and processes that are situated outside the military-industrial sphere of power, including political and civilian authorities and legal measures. Behavioural or subjective civil-military control measures and conditions can be regarded as the prevailing norms, values and attitudes of subjects, groups of subjects, of the state, and of subjects serving in the military bureaucratic power sphere. The following conditions are behavioural determinants for maintaining and enhancing balanced civil-military relations:

The presence of an informed and assertive civilian populace, well versed in democratic values, such as individual freedom, public accountability, responsibility and efficiency, effectiveness, probity and honesty in a just and fair society, who associate civilian control over the military with the establishment and preservation of freedom.3



The presence of a liberally educated professional military officers corps versed in the understanding of the population’s social values, because "... the truly liberally educated soldier is the soldier who can reconcile the necessity for training and education ... it is the man liberally educated, not the man technically trained, who will be the most sensitive to the great flux of civil life; it is the man who is both liberally and professionally educated who will be the better soldier."4



The presence and availability of university education opportunities to the military officers corps at military universities or military academies as a professional prerequisite for the inculcation of democratic and military values, with the objective of reconciling the latter through preventing partisan indoctrination and socialisation of military leaders.



The importance of civilian participation in military university education and leadership development may be regarded as a contemporary contributor to the balanced socialisation of military leaders.5

The South African debate on the deployment of the last three behavioural determinants was officially initiated during an international conference on The Future of Military Education in a Democratic South Africa, held in June 1995.

Contributions by official representatives of the South African National Defence Force (SANDF) were in favour of the militarisation of officer education6, as opposed to viewpoints in favour of the democratisation and civilianisation of particular aspects of military tertiary education. The Vice Rector of the University of Stellenbosch, Prof. Walther Claassen7, has observed on this occasion that the question of military education in South Africa is about to "... result in intensive debate in the Faculty and broader within the University." This article aims at extending the debate to involve society in its wider context.

THE DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION OF CAREER OFFICERS

ARMED FORCES AND TERTIARY EDUCATION

According to Taylor and Bletz8, "the Armed Forces have become the world’s largest educators." This education can be either functional training provided at military schools and colleges, or it can be education available on civilian college campuses. According to the authors, the concepts ‘training’ and ‘education’ are not interchangeable. They contend that military officers should not only receive functional training, but must take part in ‘campus education’ for the sake of:

being exposed to and developing analytical skills and critical judgement;

being exposed to diverse points of view; and

attracting and retaining professional officers of quality.

The above distinction between education and training is supported by Byrne9, who criticises the American Navy because it does not value the contribution that graduate study can make to the career development of officers: "... the Navy falls back on what it knows and does best - presenting its needs for graduate education in much the same way it presents those for training. Because of this, the immense added value of advanced education is never made entirely clear."

Byrne’s criticism is more significant in the light of the objectives of university education, as have been stated by the Robbins Committee10, after investigating higher education in Great Britain:

"Instruction in skills suitable to play a part in the general division of labour.

To promote the general powers of the mind.

The transmission of a common culture and common standard of citizenship."

Byrne11 suggests that the American Navy over-emphasises the "instruction of skills" or vocational training, and does not realise the added value of intellectual development and the creation of a common culture and standard of citizenship. In this regard, he states that "[g]ood graduate education, properly focused, develops officers’ minds beyond specific technical knowledge. Its real value lies in its broadening of the individual - in and across fields of study or discipline - and in its ability to develop critical thinking skills, teaching officers to research and analyze problems thoroughly and to articulate the results clearly and professionally. The technical skills acquired in graduate school may be highly relevant in some billets or much less so in others, but the education is an added value in either instance."

This point of view was also recently emphasised by the South African Deputy Minister of Defence, Ronnie Kasrils, when he remarked that "[t]he military of tomorrow requires soldiers who can think, who are articulate and who are literate in the conventional and technological sense of the word. They need to be able to ask questions, to learn on the job, and even to question sterile orthodoxy so that they can take the initiative."12

The added value of university education thus lies in a multilateral educational approach, or ‘liberal education’. The debate on whether this type of education is reconcilable with military culture was conducted during the 1970s in America and was dubbed by Barnett as a "tug-of-war".13 His viewpoint was that higher education and liberal education are synonymous. Piper14 also mentions the underlying tension between these two points of departure: "... many universities commit themselves to both liberal and vocational education. A few acknowledge a tension between the two."

At the beginning of this century, John Dewey15 wrote that professional education cannot be separated from a wider general education: "A truly liberal, and liberating, education would refuse today to isolate vocational training and any of its levels from a continuous education in the social, moral and scientific contexts within which wisely administered callings and professions must function."

On these grounds it is suggested that the professional officer should have the opportunity to share in this type of education. Dr. J.A. Williams16, Vice Chairman and Executive Director, Inter-University Seminar on Armed Forces and Society, not only supports this view, but is of the opinion that this kind of broadening experience should take place in a civilian institution. He stated that "[t]raining in the skills necessary for the competent exercise of the profession of arms is necessary, but so also is education in the broadest sense. This latter may not be best provided by the military establishment."17

Sarkesian argues similarly that military officers can only achieve intellectual awareness through higher education in an environment that exposes the individual to a variety of ideas, analyses and perceptions and that these are not likely to be encountered in a focused environment such as a military school or college. He asserts that "... the relatively broad scope of civilian type education systems, its stress on conceptualizing, and its relatively free range of intellectual inquiry, makes it more attuned to the kinds of educational necessities required for military professionals than is possible with the education system in the military establishment."18 Contrary to these perceptions, Brigadier M. Rutsch, Director Personnel Development of the SANDF, expresses the opinion that "[n]o civilian organisation can provide military education for the military, it is not their trade."19

The advantages of a general education were already pointed out by Newman in 1853 when he argued that "... general culture of the mind is the best aid to professional and scientific study, and educated men can do what an illiterate cannot; and the man who has learned to think and to reason and to compare and to discriminate and to analyze ... will not indeed at once be a lawyer ... or a soldier, but he will be placed in that state of intellect in which he can take up any of the sciences or callings I have referred to ... with an ease, a grace, a versatility, and a success, to which another is a stranger."20

It appears thus, that professional officers should, in addition to their vocational training, be exposed to a general education. This would ensure that officers remain part of their community. Intellectual development and a common cultural and value system shared by the community and the military would be retained, which, in turn, would ensure the construction of behavioural or subjective instruments for balanced civil-military relations.

In order to decide where this general formative education for young officers should take place, the characteristics and adequacy of military universities and academies in providing liberal education, will be focused on below.

THE ARMED FORCES AND UNIVERSITY EDUCATION

Piper21 believes that universities actually monopolised higher education for years: "Over the years, alternative higher education institutions have been founded, but they tend to become universities, or to become absorbed into existing universities. So the monopoly is persistent." This monopoly became a phenomenon very much in evidence in military forces. As technical or vocational training is no longer sufficient for military officers, candidate or young officers should be exposed to university education. Germany, for example, is a strong believer that vocational training alone is not enough for a young officer, a viewpoint that has led to the establishment of military universities in Munich and Hamburg. "The reason for this was found to be one-sided professional training enjoyed by officers which was no longer in line with modern requirements."22 The German policy makers see the military officer not merely as a soldier, but rather as a citizen in uniform. Officer studies must therefore not only be in preparation of a military or later civilian profession, but must also lay down the norms and values of the community. Study courses and the degrees conferred at these universities are thus comparable to those of public universities in Germany. According to Thompson and Peltier23, the character, curriculum and civilian appearance of the German military universities help to create an atmosphere designed to reach the goal of Adenauer’s "Innere Führung" or inner leadership: leaders who are autonomous moral beings and who can balance the claims of subordination against the demands of conscience; leaders who have adopted the value system of society as their own. Colonel F.W. Dieckhoff, Deputy Commander and Chief of Staff of the Zentrum Innere Führung says that the terms ‘Innere Führung’ and ‘citizen in uniform’ are synonymous and defines it as "... a concept which sets the fundamental values of the constitution as a frame of reference for the armed forces providing guidance on the way in which they are to fulfil their tasks and missions".24 This approach has been proposed as a model for the development of balanced civil-military relations in South Africa.25

According to Piper26, a university distinguishes itself from other higher educational institutions through certain "definitive characteristics". One of a university’s qualities is an environment "where people have the freedom to search for truth and to teach the truth in defiance of anyone who wishes to curtail this freedom." Piper admits that ‘truth’ can be an uncomfortable and questionable concept, but he sustains that "a university’s essential commitment [should be] to questioning the accepted wisdom of the day and the consequent need for it to be free of constraints designed to encourage intellectual, philosophical and political conformity."

Koechler27 describes an intellectual’s role in bringing about a new world order as one of critical examination of economics, social and political issues. Setshedi28 maintains "that academic freedom accords the right to any person to express himself freely ... (but that) freedom as a right must be complemented by a commitment to truth." Ataov29 states that truth thus becomes the "first duty of academic freedom and scholarship."

University education is impossible without academic freedom, because of the prerequisites of freedom, authority and power that allow an institution to decide on its own research and educational scope, while guaranteeing the freedom and protection of its members’ rights to educate and conduct research. The possibility exists that the state, as primary funder, could impinge on the autonomy of a university due to its financial dependence. Restrictions, according to Du Plessis30, should be the exception and not the rule. The university should not be a submissive or unassertive instrument in the hands of politicians, bureaucrats or power mongers. Members of a university should be free to investigate any community issue, no matter how politically controversial. Free debate and criticism, expression and exchange of opinions should be commonplace. Where a university elects to serve a particular culture or sector, it should have the freedom to expose and criticise the shortcomings of that entity. Failure to do so could result in the institution losing its credibility in the community and the wider society it serves.31

University education for professional officers should adhere to the prerequisites of a liberal education and a culture of academic freedom. This is confirmed by Downes32 who states that aspirants to the military profession must undergo a programme that embodies three features: "first, a general and liberal education; second, a specialised training in the specific skills and theory of the profession; and third, the inculcation of certain attitudes and patterns of behaviour which serve to fit the aspirant for the ‘community’ of the profession."

Three alternative models of university education can be distinguished within the military environment, namely civilian universities, military universities and military academies. Having confirmed the importance and prerequisites of university education as a behavioural foundation for civil-military relations, it will be endeavoured to evaluate the role, mission and educational nature of military academies and military universities according to the required principles of university education.

THE ROLE OF MILITARY ACADEMIES AND MILITARY UNIVERSITIES IN THE EDUCATION OF CAREER OFFICERS

In international context, military academies generally play a vital role in the shaping of professional officers. It is at these institutions, where the best of the country’s youth, "... the best and brightest this nation has to offer ..." are moulded into the military leaders of the future.33 These officers "... eventually hold the predominant share of rank and responsibility in the armed forces."34 In South Africa, the group of professional officers selected to study at the Military Academy is an outstanding group of leaders: "The graduates from the Military Academy are to form a leader group within the officers corps and eventually fill the top posts in the armed forces."35 However, the question remains whether military academies are equipped to realise the prerequisites of academic freedom and autonomy required by liberal university education.

ACADEMIC FREEDOM AND AUTONOMY AT MILITARY ACADEMIES AND MILITARY UNIVERSITIES

The policies of international military academies vary from complete academic freedom to the authorisation of publications by the relevant defence department. The Australian Defence Force Academy, as well as the German Universität der Bundeswehr, guarantee their academic staff the same rights and liberties that personnel of civilian universities enjoy.36 The American academies also maintain a policy of academic freedom, but apply certain reservations from the 1940 Statement of Principles on Academic Freedom and Tenure formulated by the Association of University Professors. These call for staff to "... be careful not to introduce into their teaching controversial matter which has no relation to their subject", and to "... remember that the public may judge their profession and their institution by their utterances. Hence they ... should make every effort to indicate that they are not speaking for the institution."37

At the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst, control over academic publications is more strict. According to the Director of Studies at Sandhurst, "... academic freedom is maintained and, within the syllabus, lecturers are free to express their views in the same way as any other academic. Scholarly writing is more problematical. Since we are civil servants we cannot express in public controversial or political views. For that reason publications have to be cleared by the MOD. In practice we have few difficulties and in a climate of Open Government any such problems are diminishing."38 However, Sandhurst is a traditional military academy and not a military university and is therefore not obliged to conform to requirements such as academic freedom. The Royal Military College of Science in Shrivenham, England, on the other hand, is a college of Cranfield University. Their viewpoint on this matter is that "academic standards are set by Cranfield University and are validated by the appropriate national professional institutions."39 The conclusion can thus be drawn that ‘academic freedom’ prevails in accordance with the policies and principles of the civilian mother campus.

At the South African Military Academy, the issue of academic freedom has been discussed frequently, although it has never been thoroughly documented. Lecturers are encouraged to do research and publish, but the SANDF contends that research must be aimed at its specific needs and that any findings that differ from accepted policy, may not be published without prior approval.

The impact of the SANDF’s policy on academic freedom is pointed out by Du Plessis40: "However, in the years before the establishment of the Government of National Unity (May 1994) the staff of the Military Academy experienced a continuous suspicion from Defence Headquarters with regards to projects involving persons and institutions with views differing in some or other way from that of the governing political party. Not only was the presentation of conferences with a diverse network of speakers at the Military Academy forbidden (not to say suppressed) but even the attendance of some such conferences by staff members was disapproved. Conferences attended were often not as a result of, but in spite of the authoritarian and anti-intellectual attitude displayed at Defence Headquarters." This observation is supported by international findings on military perspectives as included in Dixon41, where Eckhardt and Newcombe remark that "[b]oth authoritarianism and dogmatism were negatively correlated with intellectual conviction and with education, so that the authoritarian dogmatic militarist is anti-intellectual."

It was against this background that Steele42 advised the management of the South African Military Academy to strive towards the acceptance of the following value system for successful human resource development at the Military Academy :

The acknowledgement of a differentiated development philosophy, namely a military development environment and an academic development environment.



The development of individualism, non-conformist attitudes, a critical orientation, tolerance for diversity and assertiveness in the professional profile of students.

In contrast with the de facto lack of academic freedom at the South African Military Academy as reflected by the discussion above, provision was made in the South African Constitution to ensure academic freedom in South Africa: "Every person shall have the right to freedom of speech and expression, which shall include ... freedom of artistic creativity and scientific research."43 This right may only be restricted by other law if it is justifiable within reason and necessary in an open and democratic society based on freedom and equality.44 The test for exclusion of these rights rest on defined juridical principles and not on bureaucratic judgement.

This policy was confirmed by the South African Deputy Minister of Defence who stated that viewing academic freedom as inappropriate or not applicable to a military academy, is a myth. He said that "[i]f an academic institution restricts critical thinking on the part of its students and faculty, and if it censors or bans the publication of research, then it is engaged in indoctrination rather than academic pursuits."45

It was indicated above that the behavioural determinant of university education is dependent on the presence of academic freedom to ensure effective leadership development as a prerequisite for balanced civil-military relations in a democratic society. Accordingly, it may be concluded that a society whose military leaders are not exposed to liberal university education will be a society under stress to maintain balanced civil-military relations. Liberal education can never take place in an atmosphere where free debate is inhibited.

CIVILIAN INVOLVEMENT IN MILITARY UNIVERSITY EDUCATION

The civilianisation of particular categories of military employment and an increase in the number of civilian personnel employed, are renowned behavioural strategies for maintaining civilian control and the inculcation of civilian values in military forces.46 Eisenhower47 motivates this trend as follows: "There must be a clear and unchallenged civilian responsibility in the defence establishment. This is essential, not only to maintain democratic institutions, but to protect the integrity of the military profession." The extent to which this principle holds true in military education, however, has to be addressed.

In Germany, there are full-status military universities in Munich and Hamburg. These universities are self-governing according to the legislation of the federal state in which they are situated. The Munich University states unequivocally that it is not a military academy. Its aim is not merely to train officers, but to provide academic training that will prepare students for professions, over and above that of being an officer, and will also prepare them for employment in civilian life in the longer term.48 Academic personnel, as well as the rector of the university are civilians.

The Australian Defence Force Academy houses a College of the University of New South Wales. It is responsible for the education of cadets and functions independently from the military component of the Academy. Degrees are conferred by the University of New South Wales. The lecturing staff are civilians and are appointed by and serve as personnel of the university. The rector is a civilian academic and has the same status as the Officer Commanding of the Australian Defence Force Academy.

The Royal Military College of Science in Shrivenham, England, functions as a university college of Cranfield University and degrees are conferred by the university. Seventy five per cent of the lecturing staff are civilians.49 However, the Royal Military College of Science does not present formative training. Army cadets undergo this training at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst. Here, academic subjects that form part of formative training, are presented by civilians who are employed as civil servants. In the Netherlands, formative training for cadets is provided at the Koninklijke Militaire Academie (KMA) Breda, where the academic component is the responsibility of the Faculteit Militaire Bedrÿfskunde. Seventy four per cent of the lecturers in the faculty are civic government officials.50

In the United States the situation differs from Germany, Australia and England. The academies of the Army, Air Force and Navy present their own graduate courses. They have no formal relations with any civilian university. Besides civilian lecturers, there are also military officers with a lecturing order. In 1994, fifty five per cent of lecturers at the Naval Academy were civilians. During the same period, Westpoint employed ten per cent of their academic staff in a civilian capacity.51 This lack of balance between civilian and military components was severely criticised in Senate. As a result, it was stipulated in the National Defence Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1993, that in future the Army and Air Force Academies must utilise more civilian lecturers. The goal for these institutions is to appoint twenty five per cent civilian lecturers by the year 2000. Westpoint plans to reach this goal by the year 2002.

The Faculty of Military Science, University of Stellenbosch is housed in the South African Military Academy. Academic staff are all employed, subject to the approval of the University, by the South African National Defence Force and are under supervision and control of the military. The University of Stellenbosch maintains responsibility for academic supervision and control. In March 1995, seven per cent of the academic staff were employed as civil servants. The military members of the Faculty are subject to the Military Disciplinary Code of the SANDF. The institution has a military Officer Commanding, to whom the military Dean of the Faculty is subordinate.

Although the proportion of civilian lecturers at the South African Military Academy is still very small, the Deputy Minister of Defence has recently drawn the attention to international practices of involving civilians in military education, and has said that "[c]ivilian lecturers are able to inject valuable perspectives into military education."52 Professor (Colonel) J.C. Kotzé, Dean of the Faculty of Military Science is, however, in favour of a bigger emphasis on utilising military officers as lecturers. He has stated that "[t]he tendency at the ‘traditional’ military institutions tips the balance in favour of officer lecturers complemented by civilian academics. It looks as if the Military Academy at Saldanha should follow suit ..."53 He has based this conclusion on a comparison of the Universität der Bundeswehr, with, on the one hand Westpoint, the Theresian Military Academy (Austria), the Offizierschule des Heeres (Hanover), the Führungsakademie der Bundeswehr (Hamburg), and, on the other, the Egyptian Academies and Colleges.

REASONS FOR CIVILIAN PARTICIPATION IN MILITARY UNIVERSITY EDUCATION

The KMA Breda in the Netherlands motivates its decision to utilise civilian lecturers in the training of their cadets, on the basis of the knowledge and experience that lecturers involved in academic graduate studies introduce into a military academy. This gives rise to a necessary exchange between the military and civilian elements in the education of cadets and places the military within the society of which it forms part.55

The Royal Military College of Science Shrivenham56 articulates "greater cost effectiveness, improved accountability, more flexibility" as reasons for the employment of civilian lecturers.

The Royal Military Academy Sandhurst57 states that "the Sandhurst academic staff has an international reputation and very substantial scholarly output. However competent, serving officers could not provide this expertise. Equally important, civilian academics provide a degree of continuity in the staff since many remain at Sandhurst for a long time. In addition it may well be preferable for delicate strategic and political questions to be addressed by civilian staff."

The background and reasons for the expansion of the civilian lecturer corps in the faculties of Westpoint and the United States Air Force Academy are given as follows: "Studies by the US General Accounting office have been critical of faculty turnover, and the low proportion (relative to other top colleges) of terminal degrees among the teaching staffs of both USMA and USAFA. By contrast, the United States Naval Academy (USNA) has long maintained a roughly even mix of military and civilian faculty membership."58 The decision to appoint more civilians as lecturers is described further by referring to changes in educational demands on these institutions. "Our strategic planning recognizes that a large, well-defined, stable threat has been replaced by multiple, ambiguous, uncertain ones. Thus, the Service Academies must graduate officers able to solve problems and make decisions under conditions of uncertainty and ambiguity ... Consequently, the academies must ensure their curricula are broadly based in both the physical sciences and the arts." Responsibility for this education is seen as follows: "Several complementary themes have recurred in curriculum discussions. The long standing learning centre mode of education at academies must be sustained with outstanding teachers. Those selected for civilian faculty positions at the Service Academies will bring along valuable and diverse experience, which will benefit the academies in meeting the educational challenges of the twenty-first century."59

Rhynedance has recently investigated the issue of More civilians on the West Point Faculty: Good for the Army or not? In an interview poll, he has found that respondents who favoured some degree of civilianisation are at a ratio of approximately 3:1. He concluded that "... civilianization of a portion of the USMA faculty will probably cost a bit less than the current structure, will not adversely affect the Academy or the officer corps, and in fact, will strengthen this portion of the Army’s precommissioning system."60

At the South African Military Academy, applicants for academic vacancies may exercise a threefold choice with regard to the functional status of their appointment, namely the occupational groupings of military practitioner, uniformed military university educator or civilian military university educator. Civilian appointments are not preferred, but are usually accommodated as a last resort if a suitable military applicant is not forthcoming. This complicated system brings along differentiation and disparity regarding salary and benefits, resulting in the civilian option being the less beneficial. If a faculty member elects to militarise, s/he must participate in a vast number of non-academic assignments and administrative tasks that are delegated and distributed amongst faculty members. In addition to academic qualifications, faculty members are expected to attend command and staff courses for promotion. While they are attending such courses, their academic workload is distributed between departmental colleagues.

It is difficult to meet the demands of two professions, namely functional training and command experience for advancement as a professional officer, and research, publications and improvement of academic qualifications and didactic skills for recognition as an academic. This may be regarded as a primary reason why only 17,2 per cent of faculty members are in possession of a doctorate. Consequently, the research and publication record of the Faculty of Military Science has become a source of embarrassment for the Faculty and the University of Stellenbosch. An identical situation has been identified at USMA and USAFA, who also have a low proportion of terminal degrees among teaching staff. This has been one of the factors contributing to the decision to increase the civilian component in their faculties.

CONCLUSION

In the coming years, military academics will have to ask themselves how best to utilise the available manpower and to realise the level of professional competence required. Should the Military Academy be civilianised? Does the South African Military Academy have to provide just another form of military training, or does it have to set standards for efficiency and relevance that go beyond a mere discipline orientation, and provide a liberal education to an officer corps that could represent one of South Africa’s greatest strengths?

Choosing the latter option will grant the opportunity to become part, not only of the larger academic community nationally and internationally, but also of the country and its people. Civilian lecturers, as part of a true academic educational system, can play a very important role to prevent the Military Academy from being isolated from the community. Such an education will enfold the cultural value system of the community and help young career officers to internalise it, thus ensuring the presence of behavioural determinants for maintaining and enhancing balanced civil-military relations.

This article represents the views and opinions of the authors as academics, and is not the official point of view of the South African National Defence Force (SANDF).



Institute for Defence Policy (IDP), Civilian Control over the Defence, 4 September 1994, p. 16.



D.F. Trask, Civilian control of the military in the United States, Democracy and Defense, United States Information Agency, April 1993, p. 46.



Bunting quoted in M. Malan, Civilian Supremacy over the Military: Guidelines for Embryonic democracies, unpublished M.Mil. thesis, University of Stellenbosch, 1994, p. 134.



Trask, op. cit., pp. 33-36; L. Heinecken, Soldiers and Worker Rights, Strategic Review for Southern Africa 16(2), November 1994, pp. 38-39.



M. Rutsch, Overview of military education in the SANDF, proceedings of the conference and workshop on The Future of Military Education in a Democratic South Africa, Military Academy, Saldanha, 1995; J.C. Kotzé, Professional military education: The role of academies, proceedings of the conference and workshop on The Future of Military Education in a Democratic South Africa, Military Academy, Saldanha, 1995.



W.T. Claassen, Civilian academia: Adversary or ally in military education?, proceedings of the conference and workshop on The Future of Military Education in a Democratic South Africa, Military Academy, Saldanha, 1995, p. 33.



W.J. Taylor and D.F. Bletz, A case for officer graduate education, Journal of Political and Military Sociology 2, Fall 1974, p. 251.



C.J. Byrne, Rethinking graduate education, Proceedings 119(1), 1993, p. 69.



Quoted in D.W. Piper, Quality Management in Universities, Volume 1, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra, 1993, p. 15.



Byrne, op. cit., p. 69.



R. Kasrils, The South African professional soldier: A profile for the future, proceedings of the conference and workshop on The future of military education in a democratic South Africa, Military Academy, Saldanha, 1995, p. 5.



L.I. Radway, Recent trends at American Service Academies, in C.C. Moskos (ed.), Public Opinion and the Military Establishment, Sage, Beverley Hills, 1971, p. 10.



Piper, op. cit., p. 82.



Ibid., p. 119.



J.A. Williams, The international image of the military professional, proceedings of the conference and workshop on The future of military education in a democratic South Africa, Military Academy, Saldanha, 1995, p. 13.



Ibid., p. 15.



S.C. Sarkesian, Beyond the battlefield: The new military professionalism, Pergamon, New York, 1981, p. 179.



Rutsch, op. cit., p. 26.



Piper, op. cit., p. 113.



Ibid.



Universität der Bundeswehr, Information, The President of the Federal Armed Forces, University Munich, Neubiberg, 1993, p. 5.



W.C. Thompson and M.D. Peltier, The education of military officers in the Federal Republic of Germany, Armed Forces and Society 16(4), 1990, p. 589.



F.W. Dieckhoff, The role of military education in the integration and external adaptation of a National Defence Force, proceedings of the conference and workshop on The Future of Military Education in a Democratic South Africa, Military Academy, Saldanha, 1995, p. 21.



See for example J.K. Cilliers and P.B. Mertz, Concept and role of armed forces and political control of defence in a democratic South Africa, South African Defence Review 8, 1993.



Piper, op. cit., p. 113.



Anon, Academic freedom - what does it mean?, CSD Bulletin 5(5), June 1993, p. 1.



Ibid.



Ibid., p. 5.



A.G. du Plessis, Inleiding tot die Reg, Juta & Co., Wetton, 1990, p. 13.



Ibid.



C.J. Downes, To be or not to be a profession: The military case, Defence Analysis 1(3), 1985, p. 149.



United States Naval Academy, Catalog 1993-1994, Annapolis, Maryland, 1993, p. 5.



Radway, op. cit., p. 3.



SANDF, General Personnel Development and Training Policy for the SANDF, SANDF, Pretoria, 1994, p. 6.



Australian Defence Force Academy, letter from J.R. Earle, University College secretary, 10 February 1994; Universität der Bundeswehr, op. cit., p. 7.



United States Military Academy, letter from Lt. Col. J.H. Hayes, 7 March 1994.



Royal Military Academy Sandhurst, letter from M. Midlane, Director of Studies, 6 May 1994.



Royal Military College of Science, letter from R.M. Wilde, 2 February 1994.



Du Plessis, op. cit., p. 38.



N. Dixon, On the psychology of military incompetence, Pimlico, London, 1976, p. 286.



R. Steele, Report on Personnel Administrative Standards at the Faculty of Military Science, Military Academy, Saldanha, June 1994, p. 10.



Republic of South Africa, Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, Act 200 of 1993, Government press, Pretoria, 1993, Section 15(1).



Ibid., Section 33.



Kasrils, op. cit., p. 8.



Trask, op. cit., pp. 33-36; Heinecken, op. cit., pp. 38-39.



Quoted in Trask, op. cit., p. 36.



M. Geiger, Offizier und Studium - eine gesellschaftliche Herausforderung, 20 Jahre Universität der Bundeswehr München, Dies Academicus, 1993, p. 12.



Royal Military College of Science, op. cit.



Koninklijke Militaire Academie, letter from Col. J.T. Broedersz, 19 December 1994.



US Military Academy, op. cit.



Kasrils, op. cit., p. 9.



Kotzé, op. cit., p. 55.



Ibid.



Koninklijke Militaire Academie, op. cit.



Royal Military College of Science, op. cit.



Royal Military Academy Sandhurst, op. cit.



Department of Defense, A Blend of Excellence, Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense, United States of America, 1993, p. 1.



Ibid., p. 2.



G.H. Rhynedance, More Civilians on the West Point Faculty: Good for the Army or not?, Unpublished Masters thesis, Military Art and Science, Army Command and General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth, 1993, p. iii.