The term ‘third world’ has become a political term for a group of economically developing ‘non-aligned’ countries. They see world politics in terms of a global struggle between rich and poor countries — the industrialised north against the underdeveloped south — and advocate the so-called new economic order which, through a combination of aid and trade agreements, would transfer wealth from the developed to the developing nations. The term is used here in a less political sense merely to indicate the economically and technologically undeveloped and underdeveloped regions of the world.

As there is no formal measure for classifying countries as belonging to the third world, gross national product per capita (GNP/capita) is used as the criterion and, for the purpose of this article, all countries that had a GNP/capita of less than $3 000¹ in 1995 will be considered as belonging to a ‘third world environment’ to a greater or lesser extent. Based on this criterion, third world environments are found in 96 countries, predominantly in Africa, South-Asia and Latin America.

Apart from the adverse economic and social conditions in these countries, they have many other common characteristics, such as large populations and high population growth rates, poverty and disease, limited and unreliable infrastructure and large geographic areas. In many third world countries and regions, the potential for political instability and conflict is high as a result of racial, religious and cultural diversity and scarce resources that have resulted in many localised conflicts, such as those in Angola, Bosnia, Yemen, Uganda, Sudan, Afghanistan, and others. These conflicts have necessitated numerous United Nations peacekeeping and humanitarian missions in the past decade. It is unlikely that this pattern will change in the near future.

Another common characteristic of the third world is the geographical distribution of these countries near the Equator. With only a few exceptions, these all have hot climates with annual average temperatures above 20oC (68oF). Those countries closest to the Equator have hot and wet climates while those near the 30oS or 30oN latitudes have hot and dry climates. The two predominant climate and terrestrial biomes for third world countries are:

Hot and wet (selva) biome: These countries have tropical rain forests or savannah with no or very short dry seasons and are prone to hot torrential rains, tropical storms and floods. They have many rivers and wetlands with dense jungle vegetation. Temperatures remain high during the day and night throughout the year. Many tropical diseases are endemic in these countries.



Hot and dry (arid) biome: These countries are semi-arid and arid with sandy or rocky deserts. They have scarce water resources and are prone to droughts. Temperatures are high during the daytime and low at night. Hot and dry winds and sandstorms are frequent occurrences. Vegetation is absent or consists of grasses, low scrubs and succulent plants with trees only near permanent water sources such as oases and river beds.

Tropical diseases are widespread in third world countries, mainly for reasons of climate, poverty and primitive sanitation conditions. The most serious diseases are malaria, bilharziasis (schistosomiasis), leprosy, filariasis, trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis, cholera, yellow fever, yaws, and dysentery. AIDS is also widespread in many third world countries.

Treatment is available for most of these diseases, but they are still common in third world countries that cannot afford the costs of purchasing the necessary vaccines and drugs.

Militarily, third world countries can be grouped into two distinct groups: those with substantial military power and the rest. The first group includes countries such as China, India, Pakistan, Iraq, Iran, Syria and Egypt. These countries have substantial conventional military forces. China, India and Pakistan also have nuclear weapons, while Iraq and Iran have the potential to acquire them. The majority of third world countries, however, fall in the second group with very limited military power. The rest of this discussion will focus more on the second group, although many of the arguments will hold true for the first group as well.

Armed conflicts in these countries would most likely be low intensity, intrastate, civil war-type conflicts with some cross-border support and insurgency from neighbouring countries. Political support to one or more of the fighting factions by neighbouring countries may lead to regional tension, but rarely to full-scale interstate warfare. (This is more likely in instances of border disputes.) This type of low intensity warfare can last for extended periods and is very disruptive to the civilian population and the economy of the country(s). As the cause of the conflict is often related to ethnic, religious and cultural polarisation, the civilian population are often the target of violence and the potential for genocide is high. This invariably leads to a refugee problem and serious humanitarian crises. The international community is therefore compelled to intervene and many UN peacekeeping missions have resulted from such conflicts.

Third world military operations can also be divided into two distinct phases. First phase operations would be those between the primary adversaries and would most likely be guerrilla-type or semi-conventional in nature. The second phase would be peace enforcement and peacekeeping operations involving external parties, e.g. regional or international peacekeeping forces. The second phase could consist of a wide variety of operations, such as direct military intervention, the guaranteeing and denial of movement, observer missions, humanitarian relief missions and demobilisation operations including mineclearing operations. Military operations in support of the civilian authorities for disaster relief, border control, maintaining law and order, and combating crime (e.g. anti-smuggling) may also be required.

Third world conflicts would involve predominantly land forces. Limited air operations, including air strikes, are possible during first phase operations, but maritime operations are less likely. Second phase operations could use substantial air and naval support, particularly for troop transport and logistic supply. Air strikes are possible, but again less likely. The emphasis in the following discussion will therefore be on land and air forces equipment.

During the Cold War, many third world countries received substantial quantities of modern armaments from the opposing blocs, of which some are still in use. This situation is changing and, in future, the armaments used by third world armed forces will become less sophisticated as they cannot afford to replace, modernise or even maintain their outdated equipment or train their military personnel to operate complicated modern military equipment. Third world armed forces will consist mainly of infantry, equipped with basic equipment and weapons. These will be rifles, mortars, grenades, landmines, trucks and only limited quantities of heavy weapons such as artillery, armoured vehicles and aircraft.

Third world military forces are generally less well-trained than those of developed countries. This limits the sophistication of the equipment that can be effectively used by such forces. This does not imply that high-technology equipment is unsuitable for use by third world personnel. What is required, is a man/machine interface that is compatible with the ability of the operator — and this could require some unique ‘high-tech/low-tech’ equipment. A typical example is Mechem’s Mortar Fire Control System. The observer spots the target with an aim binocular, which uses laser ranging, a Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) system and an internal flux gate compass to acquire the target co-ordinates. These are transmitted to the mortar post and fed into the fire control system. When the mortar crew elevate and rotate the weapon, a series of lights inform them when they are on target.

Vehicles with automatic transmissions are preferable to those with manual transmissions if operated by less competent drivers. Simple matters such as the use of pictograms instead of wording on instruments and retaining straps connected to loose items such as fuel filler caps also have to be considered.

Second phase military operations in third world countries could require quick deployment to remote places. In terms of equipment, this requires that it should be lightweight and compact for ease of air-delivery. Robust equipment that can be dropped from the air may be required. Equipment that is to be lifted or transported by air should be containerised for ease of handling.

Forces may have to be deployed and supported through an airfield with very little or no ground support equipment. A temporary air traffic control centre may have to be set up with a mobile long-range radar and communication system. Portable navigation beacons and runway lights should be available. The need exists for a small multipurpose vehicle that could be used as a combination of a tractor, forklift, scaffold, bomb-loader and hoist.

A unit or force must be totally self-sufficient in terms of workshops, stores, supply lines, recovery vehicles, medical support, communications, housing, catering, administration, post and recreation, among others. Logistic vehicles must be limited to a single type and few variants should be used. Load-handling systems are important. Close air-logistic support is essential. A combat engineering unit with sufficient water purification, mine detection, bridging and construction capabilities is required. A peacekeeping force must understand the religion, traditions and culture of the region.

The establishment or availability of UN ‘home bases’ for supplying peacekeeping forces in various third world regions has been suggested. South Africa could be used as a ‘home base’ south of the Sahara from where the supply of consumables by air, sea, road and rail to forces in the region could be possible.

High temperatures and high humidity or high solar radiation will be experienced in most third world countries. Such conditions, as well as the difficult terrain and dense vegetation, have a marked effect on the mobility, sustainability and survivability of a force. As most major armaments manufacturers are situated in developed countries (first world) with colder climates, their equipment is often not optimised for use in hot third world environments. Cooling systems for vehicles and other equipment may not cope with prolonged usage in hot conditions. This could cause equipment failure or expose operators to unacceptable working conditions.

When first world equipment is supplied to a third world force, a number of human factor problems will be encountered. They will find it difficult to operate and maintain the equipment. This is brought about by cultural and physical aspects such as language, anthropometry, skills, training, educational level and discipline, to name but a few. Experience has shown that First world technology cannot be transferred to third world countries without first ‘culturally calibrating’ it.

Deploying first world technology and using third world operators and maintenance staff are impossible without a thorough selection process and training period. Logistic support of these forces without the support of the developers of the equipment also remains a major obstacle to their effective and successful deployment.

Third world populations consist of a wide diversity of ethnic groups. This could require different designs for man-machine interfaces and personal items such as clothing, headgear, gas masks, and others, for different population groups.

Some of the major equipment considerations are discussed below.

Vehicles for use in a third world environment should be easy to operate, maintain and should be very reliable. Vehicles should be wheeled to cover long distances and minimise running and maintenance costs. Suspension systems must be rugged to cope with bad roads and difficult terrain. Vehicles should have large fuel tanks as distances are long and fuel supplies scarce.

Operations in hot and dry climatic zones will usually encounter difficult sand and dusty conditions. Wheeled vehicles are more suitable in this environment than tracked vehicles and sand and dust filters are required on all air-intakes. Filter congestion is often a problem and cyclone self-cleaning prefilters should therefore be used. Filters also need to be changed frequently. Vehicles must be dustproof.

Operations in hot and wet climatic zones normally encounter water obstacles, mud and dense vegetation. Amphibious vehicles are therefore an advantage. Vehicles should be designed to break through shrubs and small trees. Leaf and grass congestion of air-intakes could be a problem and grids should be provided. Vehicles should also be ‘smooth’ on the outside to limit damage by vegetation. Vehicles must be waterproof and special precautions must be made to protect vehicles against corrosion and the growth of fungi. Insects and small animals such as mice, scorpions and snakes have a tendency to crawl into vehicles and can cause blockages, damage piping and wiring, and present a hazard to the crew. Access openings should therefore be fitted with grids or kept closed.

Vehicles should be air-conditioned as ventilation systems will not be able to maintain an acceptable cabin temperature. Engine and transmission cooling systems may have to be adapted to cope with extreme daytime temperatures and lubricants may also have to be changed regularly. Vehicles should be able to carry sufficient cool and pure drinking water for crews. Off-road vehicle tyres should be fitted with run-flat inserts as short wooden ‘stakes’ and sharp stones can cause frequent punctures.

As typical third world conflicts will be low intensity guerrilla-type or semi-conventional warfare, the armour protection required in combat vehicles should be against rifle-fire, landmines, mortars, man-portable grenades and missiles. Light mine-protected armoured vehicles with turrets instead of open gunmounts are suitable for these circumstances. Vehicles should have armoured windows for good all-round orientation for the crew. Combat vehicles should be fitted with electronic support systems such as GPS navigation systems, night-sights and radio communication systems.

Table: South African armoured combat vehicles suitable for third world environments

Rooikat armoured car* Eland light armoured car Ratel infantry fighting vehicle Casspir armoured personnel carrier* Mamba Mk 2 armoured personnel carrier* RG-31 armoured personnel carrier* *Landmine-protected vehicle

Operating aircraft in a third world environment presents special challenges. Low air density due to high temperatures and high elevation requires longer take-off and landing distances. Transport aircraft with short take-off and landing characteristics are therefore required. In some instances, transport aircraft with a low altitude parachute ejection system could be required for rapid deployment or due to a lack of landing facilities. All aircraft should be fitted with long-range communication systems.

Aircraft operating from gravel runways will encounter dust and sand that require special precautions. Aircraft with high-mounted engines are preferable as this minimises dust and sand ingestion. Helicopters should be equipped with air-intake filters. Special filters may be required for specific particle-size dust and sand. Another problem encountered in hot areas with high solar radiation is cockpit overheating on runways or at low-level flight. Many standard cockpit cooling systems are inadequate and may require modification.

Aircraft operating in a conflict zone may require protection against ground fire and surface-to-air missiles. Cockpit armour and infrared (exhaust emission) suppression systems should therefore be fitted. Active countermeasures such as missile warning systems, electronic countermeasures, flares and chaff may be required.

The solar radiation levels experienced in many third world countries are greater than in Europe or the US due to the height above sea level and the latitude. Protection against solar radiation needs to be increased due to longer exposure and greater intensity. The life of any ultraviolet (UV) degradable material is shortened when used in this environment. Even cockpit-mounted equipment should conform to the requirements of military standards that are normally only used for externally mounted equipment. UV curable glues and sealing compounds should be avoided in equipment to be used in this environment.

The International Aviation Authority classifies all countries into regions of mild, medium and severe corrosive areas. Experience shows that the classification of the South and Western African coastal regions into a medium corrosive area, seems to be optimistic. Corrosion of exposed areas is greater than expected when protected against corrosion according to the international classification. More frequent corrosion protection measures need to be taken in order to ensure the expected life of equipment. The corrosive atmosphere of the African coastal regions should be re-evaluated and classified.

In hot and humid areas, fungi growing in instruments could also be a problem. Insects, snakes and small animals may crawl into parked aircraft and, as with vehicles, access openings should be fitted with grids or kept closed.

Aircraft maintenance could also be a problem in a third world environment. Wear and tear on undercarriages, wheel brakes and tyres may be high due to hot and uneven gravel runways, higher take-off and landing speeds and air brakes that are less effective due to the low air density. In some regions local maintenance facilities and logistic channels may be available, but peacekeeping forces could be required to operate autonomously for periods of up to eighteen weeks. Maintenance scheduling may have to be pulled forward and the amount of organic-level maintenance increased.

The need for precision-guided weapons is important, since operations may have to be conducted in populated areas and collateral damage to the civilian infrastructure and population will have to be minimised. In joint operations with local forces, consideration should be given to the compatibility of equipment and weapon systems.

Communications will have to be supplied by peacekeeping forces. This will range from high frequency and satellite communications to personal radios. In some third world countries, cellular mobile telephones may be a viable option, since many of these states have already installed or are in the process of installing networks.

The surveillance equipment for use in a third world environment will be determined by the operational needs and environmental constraints. Surveillance radars, weapon-locating radars, nightvision equipment and remotely piloted vehicles may be required. Such systems assume a key role in peacekeeping operations where the monitoring of cease-fire agreements is important. In the tropics, cloud cover and tree canopies can render photo reconnaissance useless. The use of foliage-penetrating synthetic aperture radar can overcome this problem, as was shown in monitoring the Bosnia-Herzegovina peace accord.

Navigation in a third world environment is not always a simple matter. Maps may not be available or may be inaccurate. Operational areas may have to be surveyed by air and maps prepared prior to the commencement of ground operations. Extensive use of GPS navigation systems is required.

Landmines will remain a major problem in third world countries for some time to come, with millions of undetected anti-personnel and anti-tank mines remaining after conflicts. Mine-protected vehicles and mine detection and clearing systems will be required for most operations in third world countries. A recent threat is antitank mines, such as the TMRP 6 mine, that fires a penetrator up through the tank. There are plenty of these mines in Bosnia. South African mine-protected vehicles can be fitted with a composite armour anti-mine shield also known as a TMRP 6 Kit for protection against these mines.

Mine detection and clearing systems (MDCSs) will be required for mineclearing operations during and after peacekeeping operations. Minefield breaching operations may be required in exceptional circumstances, e.g. for emergency thoroughfare clearance. Landmine clearing operations must meet the UN 99,6 per cent clearance criterion. South Africa has developed a wide variety of mine-protected vehicles and MDCSs. Many of these have seen service in peacekeeping and mineclearing operations in Bosnia, Uganda, Angola and Mozambique. South African Chubby MDCSs have also been sold to the UK, France, the US and countries such as Uganda.

While countries such as India and Pakistan have acquired nuclear weapons, the threat from chemical and biological (CB) weapons are probably more acute. CB protection could therefore be required for all vehicles and personnel. Providing CB protection in a hot climate can be very problematic. Summer conditions of just below 50oC in the sun, humidity levels ranging between ten and 100 per cent, and solar radiation of 1 500 w/m2 can be encountered in Southern Africa. Research studies have shown that infantry soldiers will only be functional for about twenty minutes when wearing standard CB protective clothing under these conditions.²

Military operations in a third world environment require substantial and unique military medical systems due to the lack of medical facilities and the prevalence of many tropical diseases such as malaria and cholera. South Africa has developed a containerised mobile military hospital for this purpose. This system consists of various units that can be configured according to need. Some of the available units are operating theatres, patient care units, dispensaries, X-ray units, dental care units, pathology laboratories and power generation units. Such a hospital is currently in use in Bosnia. Other equipment that has been developed for use in a third world environment is a portable X-ray machine and an intravenous fluid production plant. Mine-protected armoured off-road ambulances, such as the South African Rinkhals ambulance, may also be required.

Medicines will not always be freely available from in-theatre sources. Generic medicines are not always acceptable to all personnel in a peacekeeping force, and careful attention must therefore be given to the quality and type of medicines, taking into account the makeup of the force. (In a recent case, French troops in Rwanda would only take French antibiotics, much to the dismay of the Australian medical contingent.)

Water may not be available, or it may be polluted as a result of damage to sewerage or reticulation systems. Even without damage, the water quality will probably not be of the standard expected by peacekeeping forces. Water purification equipment will be required, since forces cannot carry enough clean water or personal water purification tablets or filters to last for more than a limited period.

Electrical power will not be readily available, and where it is, continuity of supply will be problematic. Transportable power sources will therefore also be required. Standard voltages and frequency should be available.

Both the quantity and quality of available fuel may be a problem. Arrangements to fly or truck adequate supplies in will be necessary. Flexible air-transportable fuel storage containers should be available.

Before expiry of the initial thirty-day period during which incoming forces may be expected to supply their own rations, food will have to be supplied according to UN schedules. These have been drawn up to cater for the dietary preferences of most personnel from member states. Equipment to preserve and store food is required. A major problem in hot climates is the spoilage of perishables during transportation and storage. After considerable research on mass feeding requirements, Armscor developed a complete, low cost feeding system consisting of a wide variety of pre-prepared foods (more than 150 dishes, including meat, vegetables, salads, desserts and bread rolls) and a special transportable heating unit (gas or electrical). The various dishes are sealed in individual cans and thermostabilised. This process ensures a shelf stability of two years and cans only have to be heated in boiling water before serving. Irradiated foods with shelf stability without refrigeration of even longer periods can also be provided. This system eliminates the need for catering equipment, cooling facilities and trained catering personnel.

For operations in extreme weather, personnel will have to be equipped with the appropriate clothing and the adequate heating or cooling of accommodation is required. In arid regions, gloves and other handling equipment will be required as metal objects exposed to the sun could become too hot to handle with bare hands.

Third world countries have a wide range of similar characteristics that determine equipment considerations for military operations in such an environment. These characteristics include political, climatic, geographic, ecological, economic, social, technological and security characteristics. Military equipment developed by First world countries will not be optimised for use in this environment. This article has attempted to present some of the main considerations that should be taken into account in the selection or design of equipment for use in a third world environment, based on experience in Southern African. The information is not comprehensive and new insights are continuously gained through practical involvement in military operations in third world environments.

This is an edited version of a paper presented in Paris on 25 May 1998 at a seminar on Military Response to Conflict, jointly hosted by the Institute for Security Studies (ISS) and the Institute de relations internationales er strateegiques (IRIS). At the time of writing, Dr Buys was Senior Manager Planning at Armscor.

World Bank GNP Data Table, <www.worldbank.org/ depweb/activ/bigdata.htm> (21 April 1998).



Armscor’s Protechnik laboratory is constantly evaluating CB equipment for use in hot and humid conditions.