In the world today, gender has become an important issue. The growing realisation that limitations of women’s access to resources and decisions making also limits their ability to develop and exercise their full capabilities for their own benefit and that of society has prompted efforts to equalise opportunities for men and women. The message has become clear that development cannot take place if it excludes half of the human race.

The South African government has repeatedly declared its commitment to gender equality. It has not only ratified and signed International Conventions in this regard, but has also made provisions for this in the South African constitution. The Department of Defence as a government institution is required to comply with these constitutional imperatives and pursue government policy. Subsequently gender related constitutional imperatives were reaffirmed in the White Paper on Defence and the Defence Review.

The aim of this paper is to analyse DoD policy with regard to gender equality in order to determine the extent to which the government’s declarations are honoured within the organisation. In addressing the aim, this paper will first and foremost give a historical overview of the involvement of women in the armed forces, analyse DoD policy on gender, identify barriers to women’s’ advancement, draw conclusions and make recommendations in this regard.

WOMEN IN THE ARMED FORCES - INTERNATIONAL TRENDS

The global trend to use women increasingly as a military resource is related to a number of factors:

Changes in military technology


Decreasing birth rates in the developed world


Increased labour force participation rate among women


Changing attitude to gender roles²

WOMEN IN THE US DEFENCE FORCE

The United States has more women in its military than any other nation. Over 35 300 women served in the military during the 1991 Operation Desert Storm in the Persian Gulf. Many of them saw action, as traditional lines between the front and rear dissolved in the midst of modern weapons technology. Throughout Operation Desert Storm women performed flight operations within the combat zone. A number of women participated in support and rescue assignments that were as physically demanding as combat and involved significant risk of harm. Despite the women’s involvement in these operations, the US defence policy stipulated that they should not be involved in combat. The experience of military women stationed overseas during World War II demonstrated that American women are capable of functioning effectively in combat zones under conditions of extreme stress for extended periods.

Most women were discharged from the armed forces at the end of World War II. However after much debate Congress passed the 1948 Integration of Women in the Armed Forces Act, which established permanent places for women in the regular services at the time. However their enlistment was limited to two percent of the total armed forces and banned women from combat assignments.

Women currently comprise approximately eleven percent of the services overall, with the high technology Air Force having the largest percentage, and the Marine Corps the smallest, at approximately five per cent. Although the services vary considerably regarding the opportunities made available to women, all of them until just recently have excluded women from all combat-designated positions.³

Since 1974 the Army has been training men and women together but due to complaints of sexual harassment, the Department of Defence has reviewed the concept of joint training.⁴ However, other correctives measure taken to prevent sexual harassment are being taken, including the establishment of a Hotline. This service has enabled women to break the silence and speak out.

CHINESE PEOPLE’S LIBERATION ARMY

China’s armed forces adopt a select conscription system in which women are not obliged to serve but are encouraged to volunteer. Military service has enjoyed a high popularity since the establishment of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) because, in part, of the high social status of the People’s Liberation Army (PLA). However it was in the turbulent years of the Cultural Revolution (1966 - 1976), that military service became most attractive to young people, especially to young girls. In that period military service was a better alternative for city girls than being sent to the countryside to be re-educated by the peasants. Alternatively, military service was the only way for country girls to see the outside world. Being in the military also gave women soldiers a higher social status than they would have had outside the military.

Military service opened up opportunities for education and training, which in turn provided for better jobs in later civilian life. Many women gradually turned their military service into life time careers. In traditional Chinese culture, heroines who accomplished military achievements on the battlefield were admired. Typical were those who disguised themselves as men and fought in place of their fathers or brothers. A famous Chinese narrative poem tells the story of a young girl who disguised herself as a man to fight in the place of her ailing father. She later distinguished herself in many military actions and worked her way up to the rank of general. In a culture where women are usually subordinate to men, military women are highly regarded. This may be, in part, because taking up arms to serve the nation conforms with the traditional image of women as being self sacrificing.

Chinese women get into the PLA mainly through two channels. The first is to be accepted as female cadets into PLA schools and colleges. The PLA has more than 100 institutions of higher education, nearly half of them are specialised or technical institutions. However these institutions are open to a limited number of women cadets each year. The proportions varies according to allocated quotas. In most cases women cadets make up less than 25% of each class but percentages tend to be higher in medical colleges.

The second way of getting into the PLA is to be enlisted during the annual recruiting period. Recruitment of women conscripts started in 1967. The enlisted women are mostly trained as switchboard operators, computer typists, file keepers and medical orderlies. Most of them are high school graduates. If they are selected to take part in the admittance examination for PLA schools and colleges and pass with good scores, they receive further education and are commissioned as officers upon graduation. Consequently there are more women officers than other ranks.

Although Chinese women were utilized extensively in unconventional guerilla warfare and assigned to irregular military formations in the revolutionary and national liberation wars from 1927 - 1949, none have been assigned duties that involve direct combat since the establishment of the PRC in 1949. The PLA has no regulation that states explicitly that women cannot participate in combat, but the policy is well established.⁵

ISRAELI DEFENCE FORCE

Israeli women make up about a quarter of the Army’s regular soldiers, and have served in the armed forces since Israel’s 1948 war of independence. Many women were guerilla fighters during this war, fighting alongside men in combat. However, after the war, women were excluded from combat roles. Women in the military mostly occupied traditional support roles. A change has come about in the last few years: hundreds of women are now being trained in combat techniques such as sharp shooting, use of explosives, chemical warfare and driving tanks.

The Israeli defence force conducts joint training for their male and female members. Members also use the same ablution facilities. Recent reports on a radio talk show, on the Israel army stated categorically that relations between a male officer and a female subordinate are not allowed.⁶

SOUTH AFRICAN DEFENCE FORCE

In 1970 a decision was taken by the former South African Defence Force (SADF) Defence Council to appoint women in the military, in order to release men for operational duties. Although the Defence Act (Act 44 of 1957) as amended did not contain any discriminatory sections against women on any ground, white women were restricted to developing their career aspirations within the support musterings of the military. They were not appointed in positions which could result in close combat or positions of high foreign exposure, for example as military attachés.

The Army Women’s College was subsequently established in 1971 to train women separately within the SADF. White women in South Africa were therefore also subjected to the global process of inclusion into military structures.

SOUTH AFRICAN LIBERATION MOVEMENT ARMIES

Women in Umkhoto we Sizwe (MK) were subject to the same training as their male counterparts, and were involved in combat. This was in line with the policies of the African National Congress, the political movement to which MK was affiliated. The ANC policies were based on the principles of freedom and equality for all, as well as the promotion of non-sexism. Thus women were actively involved in the four pillars in which the struggle for democracy was waged i.e. mass democratic movement, ANC/MK underground structures, mobilisation of the international community, and military activities. The extent of their involvement can only be judged in terms of the overall struggle for democracy.

The historical overview of women’s involvement in the armed forces indicates that given the opportunity, women can also play an active role in armed formations. Therefore the defence of a country should not be regarded as an exclusive male prerogative.

CURRENT DEPARTMENT OF DEFENCE POLICY

COMBAT ROLES

According to the White Paper on Defence “the DoD acknowledges the right of women to serve in all ranks and positions, including combat roles”.⁷ The White Paper on Defence further stipulates that in order to secure the legitimacy of the armed forces the DoD is committed to the goal of overcoming the legacy of racial and gender discrimination. Furthermore, it states that it will ensure that the SANDF, and its leadership in particular, is broadly representative of the South African population.

In pursuance of this policy, a Gender Sub-Directorate has been established within the Equal Opportunities Chief Directorate. It has been tasked, amongst other things, to monitor the advancement of women and to ensure that they are properly represented, and also ensure that women have every opportunity to participate equally with male colleagues and liaise internationally with other organisations.

As of March 1999, almost 20% of DoD members are women and 13% are in uniform. The SANDF is one of the few armed forces in the world which accepts the right of women to serve in combat. There are women crews in the Artillery and Armoured Corps of the Army, and the Air Force has women trainee pilots. The 5th South African Infantry Battalion in KwaZulu-Natal deploys women infantry personnel on operational duties.

Although the DoD has the highest number of women in Africa within its ranks, only one gender officer has been appointed at Defence Headquarter’s level to address gender related issues and formulate policy in this regard. Unless additional similar appointments are made across the arms of service to address this issue, the DoD may be seen as only paying lip service to constitutional and legislative requirements. Institutional arrangements and monitoring mechanisms must be established to ensure that women have every opportunity to participate equally with male colleagues.

Figure 1: Rank, gender and race breakdown for South African military

MILITARY HEALTH BENEFITS

When one examines DoD policy with regards to gender equality, one realises that although women have been given legal equality this has not automatically guaranteed them equal treatment. In the SANDF male members are entitled to free medical services for their legal wives and dependent children. Married women, however, are not entitled to this benefit for their dependents.

This issue of medical benefits for the dependents of married women in the SANDF has been under discussion for some time. The amendment to the General Regulations of the SANDF in this regard were approved by the Department of Public Service and Administration and State Expenditure as well as the Minister of Defence. They were published in the Government Gazette on September 1998.

These amendments make provision for medical benefits for a member of the Permanent Force and of the Auxiliary service and such members’ dependants but exclude the dependents of members in the Short-term Service (STS) and the Service Corps. The actual implementation of this policy has yet to happen. When addressing this issue, the question to be examined should not be women’s eligibility to be considered as breadwinners, but their right as members of the SANDF to access all benefits enjoyed by their male counterparts. If budgetary constrains do not allow married women access this benefit, then consideration should be given as to whether this benefit should be available to men.

MATERNITY BENEFITS

According to DoD policy women are entitled to leave for confinement. Special leave with full pay is granted for confinement for a specific period. The policy on maternity benefits stipulates that women be considered for normal promotion during absence on maternity leave for a period of up to twelve months.

The South African Military Health Service’s policy on pregnancy encourages women to report their condition. However, the mere reporting by women of their pregnancy condition is not enough. Specific guidelines should be developed on how pregnant women should participate during courses, including the physical and psychological aspects of the course.

Although there is policy with regard to maternity benefits, this policy is not sufficiently comprehensive, missing issues such as the type and duration of training pregnant women undergo. The supervision of these women is left to the discretion of the instructors and the Training College’s interpretation of the policy. No monitoring mechanisms are in place to ensure that women are not withdrawn unnecessarily. Also the question of how long a mother should be given to bond with the child before being nominated to a course has not been addressed. Comprehensive policies are needed so that these issues are not addressed in a piecemeal fashion.

PENSIONS

In the past there was a differentiation between the pension contributions of married and/or single men and women. In the new dispensation all members contribute equally after changes in regulations by the government’s pension fund and the Finance Department.

The implementation of this policy is seen as a practical measure to ensure gender equality in pension benefits. In the past, women in the same rank as men did not receive equal benefits. The repercussion of the past discrepancies are now being felt by women who apply for voluntary severance packages from the military. The many years of contributing less than their male counterparts has meant that they receive a smaller voluntary severance package.

MILITARY HOUSING

SANDF policy stipulates that members may occupy military accommodation. However, the system of processing the application and allocation of military houses to members needs to be equalised for all members. Presently, women access military accommodation only if they have problems at home, or are single parents. The eligibility of married women to have the same access to this benefit should be incorporated into the SANDF policy.

BARRIERS TO WOMEN’S ADVANCEMENT

For the purposes of this article, barriers to women’s advancement refers to attitudes and conditions in the work place that makes it difficult for women to advance. The following factors are regarded as barriers to women’s advancement.

PATRIARCHAL SOCIETY

The patriarchal nature of South African society is the root cause of gender inequality. Therefore to challenge patriarchy and to dispute the idea that men are the only dominant figures in the family and society, should not be seen as fighting against male privilege or an attempt to destroy African tradition, subvert Afrikaner ideals or undermine European values. The fact of the matter is that patriarchy dehumanises men and neutralises women across the colour line.⁸

STEREOTYPING

Owing to socio-cultural factors, stereotyped conceptions of women continue to exist within the DoD. This manifests itself in the form of women not being taken seriously and in sexist jokes or remarks that may be shared in social functions or meetings. True advancement towards equality requires fundamental social and cultural change in interpersonal relationships between women and men, which eliminates practices based on ideas of superiority or inferiority of one sex in relation to the other.

TRAINING

The report on the Qualitative Research Findings of the Study on Gender Equality in the SANDF conducted in 1997, indicates that most women in all rank groups across all arms of service expressed that although they are subjected to the same training with their male counterparts, they do not receive the same recognition. They feel that the work done by women must be seen in the same light as work done by men. Tasks given to women should be on merit and not based on the fact that they are women. Promotion and leadership appointments must be done based on merit.⁹

“MOTHER -UNFRIENDLY” WORKING ENVIRONMENT

More often than not, gender equality in the labour market means women’s equality with men under conditions established for men without home responsibilities. The DoD needs to assess the impact of the double role women have to fulfil as soldiers and mothers on their career. Ways and means have to be identified which would facilitate the combination of both roles. The pursuance of a military career can be made compatible with motherhood. Flexible working arrangements and the establishment of child care facilities can make possible the combination of these roles.

RECOMMENDATIONS

It is recommended that gender desks be established across the arms of service in order to promote and monitor the advancement of women. Unless structures are formed and personnel appointed to monitor the situation, the DoD may be seen as only paying lip service to the process of ensuring gender equality. Gender Officers should keep themselves informed on current military activities and policies by visiting and talking to women and men in order to solicit their issues, concerns, suggestions and sentiments. Yearly conferences should also be organised to give feedback, discuss current issues and review achievements gained in terms of policy implementation.

Recruitment policies and practices must encourage and ensure the presence of women in all musterings. Quotas must be allocated. If this is done recruitment drives would ensure that the given number of women are looked for and found. This could be achieved through, for example, school visits. The purpose of these visits would be to inform the pupils about the SANDF. Presentations should be done in an interesting manner and inculcate a zeal amongst the pupils.

During recruitment all women who are potential applicants should also be notified of the real risks which both men and women will face inherent to certain occupations in the military, especially combat roles. This will enable them to make informed decisions. The opening of all occupational groups to women should be managed in a way that promotes and support them.

Gender sensitivity education should be included in civic education to address the various issues requiring change of attitude from all members of the DoD. Legal equality does not necessarily mean that attitudes will change overnight. Efforts should be made to educate people and make them aware of how patriarchal societies stunt the development of women. Gender sensitivity education would therefore ensure that women’s issues and concerns are understood and supported by all. The inclusion of women should be understood in terms of benefiting society as a whole. The key challenge to gender equality would be to motivate male colleagues to become equal partners in the process of defining the visions and strategies for a more equal society.

An enabling environment and support structures for female soldiers must be developed in order to enable them to combine soldier and mother role. The establishment of child care facilities should be seen as efforts to ensure the combination of the dual role. Female soldiers would therefore be supported in their choices. Their success should not necessarily mean that they should make a choice between family life and a military career. Many women have acquired their qualifications through distance education. The DoD needs to investigate the implications of long residential courses in terms of how they affect the women’s dual roles.

Women empowerment programmes must be established in order to build capacity and potential so that women have opportunity and choice in all aspects of their lives. Empowerment programmes are of essence because they would ensure that women are able to function optimally when given the opportunities. The patriarchal nature of our society has deprived women from playing a meaningful role in many aspects of their lives. Women need to be assured and supported in their endeavours. Empowerment programmes would provide women with an opportunity for fulfilment of their aims and aspirations.

It is recommended that a gender budget be allocated to ensure that on continuous basis, surveys are conducted, training and monitoring takes place. Unless resources are made available it would not be possible to take concrete steps to ensure gender equality. The necessary personnel to formulate policies and ensure monitoring of the situation on the ground would not be available if this is only an over and above responsibility of certain individuals. The necessary mechanism would not be put in place to measure progress. The process of ensuring representativeness of women in all structures may be prolonged. It will be on the agenda but no time frames would be set in terms of achievements.

The implementation of the above-mentioned recommendations would promote and ensure that women are involved in every structure, at all levels of command including strategic planning and decision making.

CONCLUSION

On examining DoD policy and the barriers to women’s advancement, the conclusion that can be made in this regard is that DoD has the necessary policy framework to promote gender equality. The greatest challenge is to create an enabling environment, and institutional arrangements that would ensure that women have every opportunity to participate equally with their male colleagues. Effort must be made to ensure that all members of the DoD receive the same benefits and are treated equally, beyond the formal recognition that has been provided by the Constitution, legislation and the broad policy framework.

Women’s participation in all forms of military service, including combat roles, is as crucial today as is her active participation in all the other spheres of society. The affirmation of all the women of the Department of Defence in general and the South African National Defence Force in particular, if managed correctly, will not compromise the SANDF’s combat ability and operational readiness in any way. On the contrary, the fullest participation by women can only add value to and enrich the defence of our country.¹⁰

Hopefully in the years to come, as defence systems become more technologically advanced, and sought after attributes will be efficient and effective operation of complex and sophisticated weapons systems and equipment. It is also hoped that the physical and psychological differences between men and women will be taken into consideration in the training and functional environments. In so doing the DoD’s gender sensitivity will be enhanced.

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