THE CHANGING CHARACTER OF CONFLICTS, WAR AND DEFENCE POLICIES

The character of conflicts and wars has changed. Previously, it was especially the soldiers on the battlefield who were involved. Today, conflicts and wars can cause irreversible damage to whole societies.

The terms 'total war' and 'total defence' became common during the Second World War, where destruction was, for the first time, total. Technological development resulted in the production of mass destruction weapons, the application of which does not distinguish between military and civilian targets.

With the termination of the Cold War, relations between East and West no longer constitute a security problem for Europe or, for that matter, the rest of the world. However, there is a growing tendency towards ongoing regional conflicts. The risk of new conflicts is always present, due, for example, to ethnic, religious or other conflicts of interests within a country or between countries. No country can feel safe unless there is stability and peace all over the world. For this reason, most countries have security policies which assume the existence of uncertain and unstable situations in their regions of interest.

Furthermore, most countries acknowledge that national defence is not exclusively a military task, but should be seen as part of a national concern - a total defence - in which all the resources of the nation are used to maximum effect, in order to maintain an organised and functional society, to protect the civil population, and to defend the country.

As a result of the transitional process in South Africa, the country's defence policies and structures are presently under review. Comparative studies are being conducted in order to identify appropriate concepts. Although there is a limit to what can be learnt from other countries in designing a new military dispensation, it would be wasteful to ignore the fruits of the development of democracy in the First World.

The subject of this article is the Danish Total Defence Concept. That country's highly developed society depends on a preparedness in everyday life. This preparedness forms the basis of the planning for times of crisis and war.

DENMARK AND ITS MILITARY

The Kingdom of Denmark is situated between the North Sea and the Baltic Sea, between Continental Europe and the Scandinavian Peninsula. The population in April 1992 was 5 164 774. Denmark controls the Baltic Approaches. Each year more than 50 000 ships pass through the straits of the Great Belt and the Sound. The Danish territory is well-situated as a staging and base area for operations on the Northern part of the European continent. It also provides a link between the Scandinavian Peninsula and Continental Europe, and presents a flanking threat to operations in Central Europe.

Denmark promotes peaceful development in other areas of the world. Danish soldiers have taken part in UN peacekeeping activities since 1948, and more than 40 000 Danish soldiers have served with the UN. Another important aspect of their international engagement is co-operation with Eastern European countries on a bi-lateral basis. For obvious reasons Denmark concentrates on contact with the Baltic States and Poland, but the country has also had contacts with, for instance, Hungary, Maldovia, Slovakia and the former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia.

In the military context, the Baltic Approaches, including the Northern German coastal area, must be seen as one area of operations. With the recent changes in the NATO command structure, Denmark's area has been transferred from the Northern Region to the Central Region. However, Headquarters Baltic Approaches (BALTAP) remain as a tri-service headquarters responsible for all operations in the BALTAP area.

Denmark has compulsory military service (9690 in 1993) and the Danish defence relies on mobilisation. In peacetime the active forces are made up of a combination of commissioned officers, professional NCOs and soldiers, conscripts (officers, NCOs and privates) and civilians. During 1993 the peacetime strenth was 37 320 and full mobilization strength approximately 100 000. Denmark also has a Home Guard some 70 000 strong.

ARMY

Seventeen regiments related to specific branches (armour, infantry, artillery, etc.) receive and train conscripts up to company level. These are then handed over to the larger formations - regiments, brigades and divisions - for further training. The Army relies to a large extent on mobilisation. The peacetime strength is some 18 000 military personnel while in wartime the total force would be 72 000 (by 1996 reduced to 60 000 in accordance with the Defence Agreement for 1993-94).

Mobilisation is planned to take place from a system of dispersed depots and can be completed within 24 hours.

NAVY

The Navy consists of shore-based command, training, surveillance and support components, and of naval units such as corvettes, fast patrol boats, submarines, minelayers, mine countermeasure vessels and patrol vessels. Currently a new type of ship is being introduced - the Standard Flex type of approximately 300 tons which, with interchangeable weapons and equipment modules. As a result it can be fitted-out for surveillance, attack, minelaying or mine-countermeasures roles. In peacetime the Navy is responsible for surveillance of Danish waters, search and rescue and for fishery inspection in waters around Greenland and the Faroes. In wartime the main tasks would be control of the Danish straits and defence of the territory against attack from the sea. The peacetime strength of some 5 000 military personnel would rise to 10 000 after mobilisation.

AIR FORCE

The Air Force consists of four fighter squadrons of F-16 fighters, a number of F-35 Draken reconnaissance aircraft, one transport squadron of C-130 Hercules and Gulfstream aircraft and one squadron of Sea King helicopters for search and rescue. The squadrons will in the future be based at three air stations while three additional air stations are ready to be used in wartime, together with eight civilian airports serving as 'minimum facility bases' for combat aircraft.

The Control and Reporting Group consists of one sector operations centre, two control and reporting centres and two control and reporting posts supplemented by several coastal radar sites and the Ground Observer Corps of the Home Guard. The Danish Control and Reporting Group is linked to NEDGE and is able to co-operate with the NATO airborne early warning aircraft.

Air defence resources include eight squadrons of improved Hawk aircraft and radar-guided guns. The peacetime strength of some 6 000 military personnel would rise to 17 000 after mobilisation.

REINFORCEMENTS

As a small country with limited resources in an important strategic position, Denmark cannot maintain a credible defence without allied reinforcements.

According to the reinforcement plans of Allied Command Europe, the dedicated air reinforcements would include 6 squadrons comprising some 100 US and British aircraft. Possible amphibious reinforcements could come from the UK-Netherlands Landing Force and parts of the Second US Marine Expeditionary Force. The Allied Command Europe Mobile Force can be deployed to Denmark for deterrence.

The years of occupation during the Second World War brought a decisive change in the attitude of the population towards defence. This is reflected in the strength of the volunteer Home Guard today. Approximately 70 000 men and women (out of a total population of 5 million) are trained as volunteers by some 300 regulars. While the Home Guard is directly under the control of the Ministry of Defence in peacetime, the three service-related parts of the Home Guard would come under the command of the Chief of Defence in wartime. They would provide mainly surveillance and security via a system of posts, patrols, cutters and low-level air observation posts in close co-operation with the army, navy and air force.

The Minister of Defence is responsible for the administration of the armed forces, the Minister of Justice for the police, and rescue service falls under the Minister of the Interior. Civil protection has a two-fold purpose - to ensure that normal public activities can be maintained in times crisis or war and to ensure that the resources of the civil society are used in the best possible way for the country's total defence. Hence, other ministries, for example the Ministries of Traffic, the Environment and Industry are also involved.

The Danish soldier may be a conscript or a regular. The conscripts may serve for 4 to 12 months according to type of unit; most will serve for 8 to 10 months. After the first 4 months the conscript's pay equals that of an unskilled worker. National Service is popular. Most conscripts are volunteers (85%) and there are very few conscientious objectors. Women account for approximately 5% of the regulars and may be employed in all positions. The Danish Defence Force plans to increase the proportion of women employed.

Defence expenditure for 1993 was 14 301 million DKr (R1 = 1,7 DKr). The share of GDP for defence is 1,9% (GDP in 1991 was 833 100 million DKr).

The Government Committee on Security Matters is available for the Government as a forum for discussion of security policy questions. The Prime Minister, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, the Minister of Defence and the Minister of Justice are members of the committee. The Minister of the Interior participates if it is necessary, with a view to involvement of parts of the civil protection or the rescue service. The members of the sub-committee are the permanent under-secretaries from the Prime Minister's Department, The Ministry of Defence and the Minister of Justice, the Permanent Under-Secretary of State for Foreign affairs and the chiefs of the Defence Intelligence Service and the Civil Security Service. The Inter-Ministerial Contact Group on Security Policy is composed of the chiefs of sections and the departmental managers/heads of divisions.

WHAT IS TOTAL DEFENCE?

Danish defence policy and the composition and organisation of their armed forces have been the subject of thorough studies and political discussions over the last five years1. These efforts culminated in the Act on the Aim, Tasks and Organisation of the Danish Defence passed by the Danish Parliament late last year.

The point of departure in this Act is that Defence is an essential instrument for the security policy and has as its aims:

to prevent conflicts and war;



to maintain Danish sovereignty and to ensure the country's continuous existence and integrity; and



to promote a peaceful development in the world with respect for human rights.

The Act further identifies two mission areas:

Conflict prevention, peacekeeping, peacemaking and humanitarian missions in the UN- or CSCE-context and



conflict-prevention, crisis management and defence of the territory in the NATO context.

The armed forces, the police, the rescue services, and the civil protection constitute the four authorities of the Total Defence of Denmark.

The armed forces must be efficient enough so that any potential enemy will refrain from an attack; the police shall maintain law and order; the rescue services and civil protection must be able to protect the population to such an extent that a threat of attack cannot be used to exert undue pressure on the country.

The Total Defence Concept has become a cornerstone of Danish security policy. The government and the Folketing (the Danish Parliament) lay down the framework for co-operation which, besides the national authorities, also includes the municipalities, the counties and the voluntary organisations (such as the Home Guard and the volunteers in the rescue preparedness), as well as some private enterprises and organisations. Hence Total Defence and its planning affect most of Danish society.

Virtually all ministries of the Folketing assume functional responsibilities in the organisation and management of Total Defence, but notably those of Defence, Justice and the Interior.

THE SECURITY ENVIRONMENT

The Danish intelligence community does not perceive any threat against Danish territory in the present international situation. However, political intentions might change very rapidly in an unstable situation, and security must invariably be considered in terms of military capabilities.

Denmark's international position and foreign policy is determined by the country's geographical position, its considerable foreign trade and its role as both a West European and Nordic democracy. Since 1948 Denmark has participated actively in the peacekeeping operations of the United Nations (UN). A special UN readiness force is maintained in co-operation with the other Nordic countries. Furthermore, an international brigade-size formation for use in UN, NATO, CSCE or national missions will be established by the end of 1995. Denmark will contribute to the new NATO Reaction Forces with elements from the Army, Navy and Air Force.

DANISH DEFENCE AND SECURITY POLICY

Since 1949 Danish membership of NATO has been one of the pillars of the Danish security and defence policy. This membership forms the foundation for the organisation, the mission and the concept of employment of their armed forces.

Danish defence is based on conscription and the ability to augment a comparatively small standing force by mobilisation. Article 81 of the Danish Constitution requires all men capable of bearing arms to take part in the defence of the country if necessary .

The organisation of defence and the size of the budget is laid down in defence agreements covering periods of one to four years and is usually supported by a comfortable majority in Parliament. The agreement on defence organisation for 1993 and 1994, which was concluded November 1992, was signed by 6 of the 8 parties in the Parliament.

Denmark has established a crisis management organisation to ensure that the Government is given the best possible basis for security policy reflections at any time. The organisation consists of groups at three levels with representatives from the Total Defence authorities. All three groups assemble frequently (even in peacetime) and discuss essential aspects of their respective fields.

The three groups are:

The Government Committee on Security Matters

The Sub-committee on Security Matters (Senior officials)

The Inter-ministerial Contact Group on Security Policy.

This crisis management organisation would be called upon to handle any crisis as it occurred. The crisis would be dealt with by more frequent meetings in the groups to make sure that all relevant pieces of information were brought together, the objective being to ensure co-ordination of the reaction and co-operation between the authorities involved.

If the crisis escalated it could be necessary that parts of the crisis management organisation remained assembled. For this purpose, the Minister of Foreign Affairs has established the Government's Crisis Management Centre. The Government, or parts of it, as well as the ministries and agencies concerned can assemble in the crisis management centre as required. Such assembly allows swift assimilation of political, preparedness and intelligence information and forms the optimum basis for security policy decisions.

TOTAL DEFENCE - A QUESTION OF CO-OPERATION

During peacetime comphrehensive planning occurs for the simultaneous implementations of the various tasks to be executed in times of crisis or war by the armed forces, the police, the rescue service, and the civil protection. The setting of clear priotities for the optional use of the existing resources is an important element of this planning.

Co-operation in Total Defence is most evident at the regional level because a great part of the co-ordination necessary for the achievement of planned efficiency takes place at this level. The following paragraphs give a number of examples of the priorities for the use of the country's resources in the Total Defence planning

Conscription. The activity of the armed forces and the rescue services is organised in such a way that conscripts, for a number of years after having done their service, are liable to be called up for service either in the armed forces or in the rescue service in the event of a mobilisation. This liability is indicated in each individual's service record. If a person is exempted from his call-up liability, a certificate for the exemption will be issued. The exemption is based on the fact that the person in question is appointed to a key position within the defence structure.

Key Point Services Activities. Key point services activities is a registration of enterprises, installations and other facilities of importance for the functioning of the total defence (key points for total defence). The aim, obviously, is to determine the importance of the objects and to ensure that all relevant pieces of information are available for the total defence authorities.

Hospital Preparedness. Hospital preparedness is defined as the capability of the health services to extend the treatment and nursing capability so that it is adequate during both peacetime disasters and in crisis and war. During a war, no distinction will be made between civilian and military sick and wounded.

Dormant Contractors. The purpose of dormant contracts is to ensure deliveries of important provisions in order to ensure the establishment and maintenance of valuable stocks of all kinds of provisions in peacetime. A dormant contract is a contract established between a national authority and a public or private enterprise. The contract states the obligations of the enterprise to deliver certain goods or other services needed by the national authority in an emergency situation.

Requisition of Vehicles. In the event of a mobilisation during a crisis or war, the armed forces and the rescue preparedness need a larger number of vehicles than those available for the peacetime preparedness. The Act on Procurement of Means of Transportation for the Military Defence and the Rescue Service states that the owners of means of transportation of any kind (motor vehicles, aircraft, barges, minor boats, cranes, etc.) are obliged to make these vehicles available for the armed forces and the rescue preparedness in times of crisis or war as well as in the event of mustering or exercises of a special nature.

The preceding sections have provided an outline of Danish Total Defence - its objectives and components. An attempt has been made to illustrate aspects of the co-operation between the four authorities. Of course, it is not a exhaustive description of the tasks and patterns of co-operation within the Total Defence programme.

A COMPARISON BETWEEN THE DANISH TOTAL DEFENCE CONCEPT AND SOUTH AFRICAN DEFENCE CONCEPTS AND POLICY

A cursory comparison between Danish and South African defence concepts and policies reveals a number of similarities. Firstly, conscription of white males has been used for decades to augment the regular component of the former South African Defence Force. Secondly, the concept of 'total war' is akin to the concept of 'total defence', although the latter earned a fair measure of notoriety in this country. Next, the now disbanded National Security Management System did effect co-operation between government departments and civil society, at all levels from central government to local authorities. Furthermore, a key point register is currently maintained and contingency plans are kept up-to-date.

Obviously, not all of the Danish defence concepts and policies are applicable in a South African context. It would, however, be foolish to abandon all the elements of 'total defence' in the process of reviewing past and present concepts and policies.

BENEFITS OF THE TOTAL DEFENCE CONCEPT IN A SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT

In adopting a total defence concept, South Africa could reap a number of benefits.

Creation of National Unity. The rational utilisation of the country's entire resources to the benefit of all its inhabitants would greatly contribute towards the creation of national unity. The planning for the maintenance of society takes place at all levels; many authorities, enterprises and individuals are involved. As a result, a large proportion of the South African citizenry will be involved if a crisis or war occurs. The persons who hold the responsibility for tasks in peacetime will also be responsible for those tasks during crisis or war.

Less pressure on the Government Budget. It is widely expected that the new government of national unity will accord high priority to social upliftment. A bloated defence force cannot be sustained at the expense of these programmes. Conscription is, for example, an economic way of mobilising manpower in times of crisis or war. On the other hand, it also underpins the concept of a citizen-in-uniform which serves the requirements of a democracy.

Effective Defence. It would be pointless to finance and sustain ineffective security forces. Despite the current lack of a conventional threat against South Africa, it would be irresponsible not to plan for contingencies, especially in view of national and international instability. By adopting the concept of total defence, the cost-effectiveness of resources employed in support of national security would be greatly enhanced.

Regional and International Co-operation. In the same way as Danish membership of NATO has been one of the pillars of Danish security and defence policy, South Africa could benefit through membership of a possible southern African security organisation, as well as support for and co-operation with other members of the international community.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

Denmark has a long and proud tradition of democracy. The country was among the fifty nations to sign the Charter of the United Nations in San Francisco in 1948, and has consistently worked for the realisation of the principles laid down in that Charter.

South Africa has started a new chapter in its relatively short history. If its endeavours to create a just and democratic society are successful - as they should be - it may set a precedent, not only for the rest of Africa, but also for other troubled communities all over the globe. However, an assertive young democracy will need to be well-prepared for times of crisis and war. As a regional leader the country will, at times, be called upon to render assistance to allies in need and to contribute to various UN peacekeeping initiatives.

Besides devoting itself to the reconstruction of South African society the government would be prudent to formulate an effective foreign and defence policy. Government planners would do well to consider aspects of Denmark's proven concept and policy of Total Defence.