political and electoral;



humanitarian;



judicial;



legal;



human rights;



security; and



UN civilian police.

UN civilian police is headed by a police commissioner, and consists of a number of civilian police units or teams, depending on the size of the mission area, the force structure, and the tasks given to the civilian police. The rest of the civilian component normally reports directly to the SRSG or his deputy. All these components are supported by the mission support services, which are headed by a chief administrative officer.

UN agencies which may operate in the mission area, such as the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), the UN Development Programme (UNDP), and the UN Children's Fund (UNICEF), are not formal parts of the structure, but the head of the mission may be given the authority to co-ordinate and support all elements of the UN system that are active in the area of operation. Indeed, the Security Council resolution may include a request for all international organisations and agencies active in the mission area to co-ordinate closely with the UN mission. The SRSG co ordinates his activities with the activities of international and non-government organisations active in the mission area. The specific responsibilities and tasks of all the components of a UN mission are defined in the Security Council resolution.

The military component maintains a secure and stable environment through the separation of forces, demobilisation, weapons control, manning of observation posts and check points, etc. The military component may be required to provide security for other UN and international personnel employed in the area.

The civilian component is responsible for implementation of assigned tasks related to the:

return of refugees and displaced persons;



co-ordination of plans for development and economic reconstruction;



organisation of elections;



functioning of public services; and



respect of human rights.

The civilian police, as a part of the civilian component, has the primary task of monitoring the local police. In fulfilling its role of supervising and controlling the local police, the protection of human rights should be ensured. In several missions, an additional function has been the training of local police, or providing assistance for such training. In missions where an election is scheduled during the mandate period, civilian police will typically perform tasks related to the election, and assist the electoral element. Another function can be assistance to humanitarian agencies. It is important to note that UN civilian police do not replace the local police, and do not execute law and order functions.

As mentioned above, the military and civilian components are supported by the mission support services, headed by a chief administrative officer (CAO). The CAO is responsible for all administrative and financial functions and all general and technical services related to the mission activities, as well as for providing the requisite administrative support for carrying out the substantive work of the mission effectively and economically.

MISSION PLANNING

The planning process starts when the UN Secretariat receives 'early warning' signals indicating a possible UN mission. These indications are provided or picked up by the Department of Peace-Keeping Operations (DPKO), the Department of Humanitarian Affairs (DHA), and the Department of Political Affairs (DPA).

An Inter-Departmental Group with high-ranking representatives from the three departments meets weekly to share information. Other departments and agencies are invited to attend, when appropriate. Early warning indications are evaluated and, if relevant, a mission analysis is initiated and conducted by the three departments. Other departments and agencies are involved if appropriate. This leads to an assessment of the situation and possible general courses of action. Based on the initial analysis, the DPA presents assessments and recommendations to the Secretary-General for further political handling and for a decision in the Security Council.

The Security Council authorises the operation in principle and requests the Secretary General to submit a detailed plan, together with a rough cost estimate. In order to gather information, an initial reconnaissance or survey is despatched to the mission area. Personnel from the Office of Planning and Support of the DPKO participate in the survey, together with representatives from the DPA, DHA, Department of Public Information, and other appropriate UN agencies.

The aim of the initial survey is to recommend the different courses of action for a possible peacekeeping operation to the Secretary-General, and the number of troops, military observers or civilian police involved. The report on the initial survey must enable the Secretary-General to propose to the Security Council the kind of peace operation which is required, together with a first estimate of cost and of the number of troops needed. Based on the report on the initial survey and the mission analysis, the Secretary-General's report to the Security Council is developed, containing proposals of how the mission can be conducted. This report is then submitted to the Council.

If agreement is reached, the Security Council passes a resolution on the mission, approving all or part of the Secretary-General's plan and formally authorising the peacekeeping operation. The resolution sets the framework for the mission. Among other aspects, the Security Council resolution provides guidelines on the following important issues for continuous planning:

the mission area;



the initial duration of the mission;



the total number of troops to be involved; and



the mandate (that is, what the military and civilian components are authorised to do and the tasks to be performed by the components).

As soon as possible after the initial survey, in order not to delay the deployment of troops, a technical survey is conducted in the mission area. Participation in the technical survey is primarily by officers from the DPKO, since the aim of the survey is to produce the operational and support concepts, including logistic requirements. Representatives from other departments participate when appropriate.

The detailed planning following the adoption of the resolution is co-ordinated by an interdepartmental working group, established with representatives from all involved departments and UN agencies. The group is headed by an officer of the Mission Planning Service of the DPKO, and it holds regular and ad hoc meetings to share information and to co-ordinate the process in accordance with the general concept of operations. Based on the Security Council resolution and the results of the technical survey, planning is conducted within the Office of Planning and Support at the DPKO, in close co-operation with its Office of Operations and the other departments of the UN Secretariat.

The UN DPKO's Planning Division, with the Mission Planning Service in the lead, is responsible for the following:

The general concept of the operation: the principal element in the planning process is the concept of operations. This is an expression of the overall modus operandi of the selected course of action for the operation, in order to obtain the goals and objectives. In broad terms, it will define what should be done, as well as where, by whom and how. The concept of operations guides all further planning.



Organisation of the military component: the force structure is developed on the basis of the mandate as given in the resolution, the total strength authorised, and the concept of operations.



Negotiations with troop contributing nations: on the basis of the stand-by force arrangements, and through the permanent missions of the member states, the Mission Planning Service requests troop contributions to the mission. The force structure forms the background for negotiations with the permanent missions of the troop contributing member states. However, these negotiations might well start before the force structure is finalised, thus influencing the final version of the force package.



Drafting a contribution agreement between the UN and troop contributing member states concerning reimbursement for personnel and equipment: this is a quite new invention, under implementation and testing at the present missions in Eastern Slavonia (UNTAES) and in Haiti (UNSMIH). The purpose of the contribution agreement is to establish the administrative, logistics, and financial terms and conditions which govern the contribution of personnel, equipment and services provided by governments in support of UN peacekeeping missions. The agreement is to be signed before deployment of a military contingent. (Previously, reimbursement was arranged after the deployment of the troops to the mission area.)



Producing guidelines for troop contributing nations: the purpose of issuing these guidelines is to give guidance for the preparation of the contingents in the home country. The guidelines contain information about the mission area, the mandate, the concept of operations, the mission structure, administrative guidelines, medical support, and training requirements.



Issuing general guidelines for the force commander: these guidelines contain the general and principal information and directives concerning the framework for the force commander, such as his terms of reference; the chain of command; rules of engagement; reporting; and standing operational procedures.



Developing rules of engagement: the rules of engagement are developed by the force commander on the basis of the directive given in the guidelines for the force commander; the Security Council resolution; and the UN-approved permanent principles for rules of engagement. The force commander forwards the draft to UN HQ, where it is revised by the military adviser and the Office of Legal Affairs, before being submitted to the Under Secretary-General of Peacekeeping Operations for approval.

Similarly, the DPKO's Field Administration and Logistics Division, with the Logistics and Communications Service in the lead, is responsible for the following:

the logistic concept of operations (which is based on the general operational concept);



determining logistic requirements;



host nation support (which is based on the Memorandum of Understanding and the Status of Forces Agreement);



materiél and services to be provided by the UN:



contracts concerning civilian personnel and matériel;



drafting the budget (for approval by the General Assembly); and



devising the deployment plan (which is based on the deployment timetable, developed by Mission Planning Service, and is co-ordinated with the permanent missions of the troop contributing nations).

During the total planning process, co-ordination often takes place by direct contact between the staff officers for the various units involved in the process. Parallel to these activities, the other UN departments involved conduct their planning according to their responsibilities, and co-ordination is obtained through the working group.

Furthermore, meetings with representatives from all the permanent missions of the troop contributing nations are held when there is a need to give a comprehensive presentation of the planning and to discuss common problems. These meetings are normally chaired by the Under Secretary-General for Peacekeeping Operations or the military adviser to the Secretary-General.

Prior to the deployment of the forces into the mission area, the DHA, through the UNDP (if present in the country) will contact those international agencies active in the mission area to facilitate the co-ordination of locations between the military and agencies on the ground.

THE EXECUTION OF A UNITED NATIONS PEACE OPERATION

Transition from Planning to Execution

During the planning process, the head of mission and the heads of the mission components are appointed and briefed at UN HQ. Staff are determined and initial plans are developed. The establishment of headquarters in the field then begins, and the personnel conduct the detailed planning on the basis of the guidelines given to them. Units are deployed into the mission area under the direction of the Field Administration and Logistics Division. In order to bridge the gap between the arrival of the troops and the time when the UN logistics support system is operational, units are requested to be self-sustained for approximately 60 to 90 days, allowing the UN support system to be established.

As soon as the units are deployed and operational, the Office of Operations, being responsible for ongoing missions, takes over and maintains contact with the mission headquarters and the permanent missions of the troop contributing nations. The Planning Division continues to monitor the process, and becomes involved when there is a change in mandate or a need to review special operational plans, such as the plan for an emergency withdrawal of the mission. The Field Administration and Logistics Division continues to be responsible for support, but this is handed over by the Future Operations unit to the units which are responsible for the execution of the support.

The transition from planning to execution in a mission start-up phase is actually rather difficult. It is often conducted under time pressure, because there is an expectation of having the mission established as soon as possible following the adoption of the Security Council resolution. However, it takes time – often several months – to prepare and deploy troops. The UN standby forces arrangements are intended to reduce the time for preparation and deployment of future missions.

Staff are also established under time pressure and in difficult situations. The staff must familiarise themselves with the situation in the mission area and the various concepts of the mission. At the same time, they must produce plans concerning the mission start-up.

In order to bridge the gap between the mission start-up period and the establishment of the various HQs and staffs in the field, the concept of a rapidly deployable mission headquarters has been born. The idea is to have staff who are trained and qualified to handle mission start-up functions stationed at UN HQ, and ready to deploy. In case of a new mission, they will follow the initial mission planning at UN HQ and then, as soon as possible, deploy to the mission area to conduct all the mission start-up functions. When the mission headquarters and staff are established, the rapidly deployable mission headquarters will hand over their functions and redeploy to UN HQ. At present the concept is under development at UN HQ.

Command and Control

The daily execution of a peacekeeping operation is in the hands of mission leadership in the field. At UN HQ, the Office of Operations is responsible for the day-to-day executive direction of peace-keeping operations. The Office of Operations, through the political and military desk officers, maintains regular contact with field missions and provides timely direction and guidance on policy issues. When the leadership in the field requires input or insight into matters impacting on the mission, the desk officers liaise and co-ordinate such requests with other departments.

The Planning Division maintains liaison with the Office of Operations and follows the mission closely in anticipation of major changes to the mandate or force structure. The Planning Division is required to plan major changes in the mission.

The Field Administration and Logistics Division also maintains close contact with its counterparts in the field to ensure the consistent support of the mission, while the Situation Centre at UN HQ receives reports from the field. The Situation Centre operates 24 hours a day, and the reports received form the basis for information papers which are distributed by the Situation Centre.

The issue of command and control is important and essential, but at the same time, very complicated. First of all, there are the relations between the troop contributing nations, the UN, and their contingents. There is also an important relationship between the force commander and the national units. Officers from various parts of the world have different definitions of command and control. It is therefore more correct to use the term operational authority, as in the UN Guidelines for Peacekeeping Operations. UN operational authority entails the exclusive authority to issue operational directives within the limits of a specific mandate of the Security Council as stated in the resolution and a specific geographic area; and for an agreed period of time.

Generally speaking, management in the field is based on the operational authority given to the special representative of the Secretary-General and the head of each component of the mission. It is important to note that military and police personnel contributed to a peacekeeping operation by member states remain members of their national armed forces or police. However, the operational authority over such forces and personnel is delegated to the UN, and vested in the Secretary-General, under the authority of the Security Council.

Although a troop contributing member state retains full command over its contingent, it should not interfere in the operational employment of the contingent for as long as it is employed in accordance with the specifications stated in the resolution, as mentioned above.

Interaction Between the Components

The basic conditions for effective interaction between the various components of a peacekeeping mission are a widespread understanding of the multidimensional aspects of the mandate, and the need for co-ordination and mutual support between the components. No element of the mission should be allowed to work in isolation. Constant communication, liaison and co-ordination are necessary. A mission-wide directive outlining expectations and standards of internal communication and external liaison should be issued by the mission leadership to ensure the fulfilment of these essential conditions. It is also important to ensure that there is a mission-wide understanding of policy directives and information being announced to outside agencies. The interaction between the components, UN agencies and NGOs operating in the mission area should take place at all levels of the mission structure.

At mission leadership level, the SRSG, assisted by the Deputy Special Representative of the Secretary-General (DSRSG), the Chief of Staff, the office of the SRSG and the mission planning staff, issues comprehensive directives concerning the overall activities within the mission. Regular meetings are held with the heads of the components and elements to ensure overall co-ordination and combined effort.

As mentioned earlier, the SRSG may have a co-ordination or support function regarding the activities of UN agencies operating in the mission area. The mission HQ – although not formalised – consists of headquarters and staffs of the various components. Here the more detailed co-ordination takes place. The planning and execution of major tasks – for example the return of displaced people – are conducted and controlled within the framework of the mission headquarters.

The interaction between the military and the civilian components at mission HQ level also concerns administrative and support matters. In more recently established missions, such as the UN Angola Verification Mission (UNAVEM III), the UN Transitional Administration Authority in Eastern Slavonia (UNTAES), and the UN Support Mission in Haiti (UNMIH), integrated support services have been established and maintained by civilian and military personnel by combining the military and civilian support assets into a common use.

At the component staff/headquarters level, detailed co-ordination with UN agencies and NGOs is conducted by the staff of the civilian component.

The military staff has incorporated a civil-military operations cell which ensures close co-ordination with the civilian component concerning activities which involve both the military and the civilian component of the mission. When combined with staff members from the civilian component, the civil-military operations cell can turn into a civil-military affairs cell, to become the primary access point for UN and other humanitarian agencies with requests for military support. This could be military support to humanitarian actions, or military support in the form of security, escorts, demining and engineering assets in connection with the return of refugees and displaced persons to their homes origin. In the case of the military observer element within the military component, it is seen as an advantage to have a UN Director of Operations in the civil-military affairs cell to ensure that requests for support received by military observers and forces in the field are not duplicated and because valuable humanitarian and human rights information is gathered by military observers.

At unit level in the field, liaison and co-ordination also take place between the military units, military observers, UN civilian police, and other civilian elements. This is important in order to ensure that proper action is taken throughout the mission area and also to make sure that specific information is passed on to the right persons. With respect to security concerns, UN civilian personnel, by attending the commander's briefing, are informed about the situation in the area.

On the other hand, it is important that military liaison officers and military observers attend information sharing meetings chaired by the UN civilian component. Among the staff of the civilian component it must be recognised that military units, military observers and UN civilian police are highly mobile, are often exposed to humanitarian needs and human rights abuses, and have a valuable role to play in information gathering. In a multifaceted operation, where other UN agencies and NGOs are operating, it is an advantage that meetings are also held at unit level to clarify tasks and responsibilities when humanitarian actions are to take place in the area of responsibility of the unit.

It may generally be concluded that, in the organisation of a multifaceted peacekeeping operation, there is the framework for co-ordination, interaction and good relationships among the mission components. However, it is important to realise that each mission may have its own variations, special circumstances and human relations. Hopefully, these variations will also serve the overall aim of achieving a comprehensive and successful accomplishment of the mission.

CONCLUSION

A peacekeeping operation is closed down as a result of a Security Council resolution. The responsibility for the withdrawal and the closure passes from the Office of Operations to the planners. The Planning Division is the lead agent in the planning for the closure of a mission, in co-ordination with the mission in the field. In concert with the Field Administration and Logistics Division and its liquidation team, the Planning Division develops the time-scales and co-ordination with other units outside the DPKO which are affected by the mission closure. Prior to the acceptance of the plan, outside agencies, such as NGOs, will be informed of the projected withdrawal of security forces.

Looking at the many ongoing missions, one may conclude that for a multidimensional mission there is no standard mission structure. Each mission structures itself according the mandate given by the UN Security Council resolution. However, the general approach for the organisation of the mission, co-operation and co-ordination between the mission components, and other UN and international agencies is observed.

The above discussion may also create the impression that the planning, execution and termination of peacekeeping operations occur in a smooth and well co-ordinated fashion. The intention, however, was merely to explain certain 'generic' processes and procedures. Actually, the process is far more complicated, due to the multidimensional character of contemporary missions. Taking into account the many missions that have been established and terminated by the UN, and those that are still ongoing, one may conclude in general, that the system works successfully.