1 INTRODUCTION

The project team visited South Africa over the period 24 October to 28 October 1996. For a more detailed itinerary, see Appendix J.

2 SCOPE

The report on peace operations training in the South African National Defence Force as presented to the survey team is presented as follows:

background: South African participation in peace operations;


peace operations training philosophy;


the South African Army's approach to training for peace operations;


the role of the South African Army College; and


comments and recommendations by host country.

3 BACKGROUND: SOUTH AFRICAN PARTICIPATION IN PEACE OPERATIONS

After some thirty years of virtual isolation, South Africa is now considered to be a full and equal member of the international community. International relations have been normalised and the country has joined or returned to various international organisations, to enjoy both the rights and duties of such membership. Co-operation with other countries on a bilateral or multi-lateral level, within or outside the context of international and regional organisations, is an essential element of the country's defence policy.

For obvious historic reasons, South Africa has not yet provided troop contributions for peace operations under the auspices of the UN, the OAU or SADC. However, the South African National Defence Force (SANDF) has provided select logistic, airlift and specialist support for such missions since 1990. The SANDF provided electoral assistance in the form of air transport for UNAVEM II in Angola and ONUMOZ in Mozambique. The SANDF has also provided logistic support for the UNAVEM III operation in Angola, in the form of tentage and equipment for four of the assembly areas set up by the UN in that country. Moreover, the SANDF has provided humanitarian assistance to Burundi in the form of medical assistance and the provision of essential humanitarian supplies, and has assisted the Government of Angola with the training of de-mining teams.

The SANDF will continue to provide logistic and humanitarian support for peace operations mandated by the UN and sanctioned by the OAU, within the constraints of its available means and resources. The contribution of a troop contingent to multinational peace operations is currently hindered by the ongoing, post-apartheid process of transforming the SANDF from an agglomeration of former statutory and non-statutory forces into a single, national defence force which is appropriately structured and oriented for serving the democratic South African state. This transformation involves both the integration of diverse armed forces and the rationalisation of the resultant national force to achieve an appropriate level and composition of personnel. As the final size and orientation of the National Defence Force is still subject to a consultative defence review process involving the armed forces, parliament and civil society, it is difficult to forecast the exact size and nature of personnel contributions to future peace operations. An additional restrictive factor is the ongoing internal deployment of over 50 SA Army companies (more than 5 000 troops) in support of the SA Police Service, in order to maintain internal stability, law and order. Moreover, the SANDF has had to cope with the financial burden of a defence budget which is constantly declining, as the Government seeks to redress the socio-economic imbalances created by past policy. Whatever the extent of future South African troop contributions to peace operations, such contributions would only be made with the proviso that the relevant operation is:

established by a resolution of the UN Security Council;


which is supported by the OAU; and


approved by the SADC.

In the short-term, the SANDF sees its priorities in the realm of peace operations as follows:

assisting with peacekeeping efforts within the SADC community;



the provision of humanitarian assistance elsewhere in sub-Saharan Africa;



the secondment of specialist staff officers to UN DPKO (currently three SANDF officers); and



other UN approved peacekeeping operations (two SANDF officers in Bosnia) and UN observer missions.

The structure of the SANDF is unique among the countries surveyed, in that the armed forces consist of four arms of service. In addition to the Army, Air Force and Navy, there is also a South African Medical Services (SAMS) which is responsible for providing all medical assistance to the rest of the forces during times of both war and peace. During November 1996, a seminar with the theme The Role of the SAMS in Humanitarian Operations was conducted in conjunction with the Institute for Defence Policy, with the aim of conceptually orientating the South African participants on the issues involved for future participation in such operations.

4 PEACEKEEPING TRAINING PHILOSOPHY

The SANDF believes that when it does undertake third-party peacekeeping, its contingents must be well-equipped and trained to the highest standards. Personnel development is an important part of this equation, including the attendance by select personnel of peacekeeping-related courses in foreign countries. Since the middle of 1995, SANDF personnel have attended the following courses:

Advanced Course in Peacekeeping for Senior Officers, presented over four weeks in Egypt and attended by two senior officers;



Protection of Human Rights Course, presented over one week in Gambia and attended by one senior officer;



Peacekeeping Management Command and Staff Course, presented over six weeks in Canada and attended by five senior officers from all four arms of service.



15th Course on Law of Armed Conflict, presented over two weeks in Switzerland and attended by one senior officer;



54th International Humanitarian Military Law Course, presented over two weeks in Italy and attended by two senior and two junior officers;



UN Regional Peacekeeping Training Workshop, presented over one week in Egypt and attended by one senior officer;



Peacekeeping Map Exercise, presented over one week in Ethiopia and attended by one senior officer;



Advanced International Programme on Human Rights, presented over three weeks in Sweden and attended by one senior officer;



Maritime Dimensions of Peacekeeping, presented over two weeks in Canada and attended by one senior officer;



Human Rights Seminar, presented over one week in Switzerland and attended by one senior officer;



UN Military Police Course, presented over three weeks in Denmark and attended by one senior officer and one warrant officer;



UN Military Observers Course, presented over three weeks in Finland and attended by one senior officer;



UN Military Staff Officers Course, presented over three weeks in Sweden and attended by one senior officer;



UN Military Logistic Officers Course, presented over three weeks in Norway and attended by one senior officer;



59th Law of Armed Conflict Course, presented over two weeks in Italy and attended by four senior officers;



Canadian Armed Forces Peacekeeping Course for Chaplains, presented over one week in Canada and attended by one senior officer;



Regional Peacekeeping Course, presented over two weeks in Zimbabwe and attended by two senior officers; and



Peace Support Operations Study Phase, presented over two weeks at Camberley Staff College, UK and attended by one senior officer.

The aim of ongoing participation of officers in courses such as those outlined above is to establish a pool of knowledge and expertise among career officers and soldiers, which can be utilised to enrich the quality of existing and planned training programmes for peace operations.

In addition to the general courses attended by select personnel in other countries, the SANDF will introduce a civic education programme for all members of the armed forces in 1997. The curriculum is in an advanced stage of compilation, and ministerial and parliamentary approval for the implementation thereof is expected by the end of 1996. The aim of civic education is to ensure that all South African soldiers, of all ranks, are aware of and respect the rights and duties of citizenship in the democratic state, including human rights. Civic consciousness will form an essential element of the leadership philosophy of the integrated National Defence Force. One chapter of the existing civic education curriculum is devoted to the Law of Armed Conflict, and the ICRC will facilitate the teaching thereof within the SANDF.

A human rights programme has also been approved for teaching in the SANDF, and the instructors for this programme will commence training in 1997. In time, both the civic education and human rights programme will ensure that all SANDF personnel will embark on dedicated peace operations training with an appropriate attitudinal foundation for peacekeeping duties.

5 THE SOUTH AFRICAN ARMY'S APPROACH TO TRAINING FOR PEACE OPERATIONS

As with many other countries, the development of peace operations training and capacity is centred around the South African Army. The army, as tasked by Chief of Staff Operations, has already produced a draft Joint Warfare Manual: Peace Support Operations, which covers the following aspects:

the United Nations;


the Organisation of African Unity and the Southern African Development Community;


fundamentals of peace support operations;


the strategic level;


the operational level;


command responsibilities;


legal considerations;


planning considerations;


intelligence support; and


training.

The army is planning for the implementation of four phases of peace operations training:

Phase 1 - Force Preparation Training;


Phase 2 - Pre-Deployment Training;


Phase 3 - In-Theatre Training; and


Phase 4 - Post-Deployment Training.

Phase 1 force preparation, or background training for peace operations, will be presented to all members of the army according to the following syllabus:

background to peace support operations;


the United Nations and the Charter;


humanitarian law;


the principles of peace support operations;


types of peace support operations; and


background knowledge on status of force agreements and rules of engagement.

This training has been mandated for all new intakes of SA Army volunteers, beginning with the January 1997 intake.

In addition to the above, Phase 1 training for personnel and units which are earmarked for participation in future peace operations will include training in the following operational skills, according to UN standards:

positions and observation posts;


checkpoints, roadblocks and searches;


patrolling on foot and by vehicle;


investigations;


negotiation and liaison; and


the use of minimum necessary force.

Two infantry battalions have been identified for such training, and their command cadre and instructors have already completed the entire Phase 1 training package. It is envisaged that the assistance of UN Training and Advisory Teams will be requested for the implementation and evaluation of further training efforts.

Phase 2, pre-deployment, or mission oriented training will commence when a unit or units have been placed on standby for participation in a specific peace support operation. It will also be the responsibility of the unit commander to train specialist personnel and sub-units which have not yet undergone Phase 1 training, after marrying-up has been completed. During Phase 2, all personnel will undergo the following training:

study of the host country (geography, history, culture and customs, etc.);


the mandate and mission;


the military mission;


the rules of engagement;


weapons, vehicles and equipment to be used in the mission;


survival skills;


safety measure (shelters, equipment, travel and movement, and non-operational safety).

Specialised training for the appropriate personnel will also be presented on the following:

driving (specialised skills);


helicopter drills;


staff training (UN procedures and reports);


explosive ordinance disposal;


media relations; and


English language.

The leader group (all levels of command and staff) will receive additional training on:

the historical origins of the dispute/conflict;


major developments in the dispute;


the involvement of the UN and other specialised agencies;


the Security Council mandate;


other relevant resolutions of the Security Council, and the Secretary-General's reports; and


military/civilian co-ordination.

It is envisaged that Phase 3, in-theatre training will be conducted with the assistance of UN personnel, and that this will include:

a review of the mandate, status of force agreement, and updates on the prevailing situation;



updates on the recognition of arms, equipment and vehicles in use in the area of operations;



force security and contingency plans;



terrain orientation;



rehearsal of interposition operations and occupying of prepared positions;



lost and missing procedures; and



driver training (local laws, highway codes and cross-country techniques).

Phase 4, post-deployment training will be conducted at the unit level upon conclusion of, or rotation out of, a specific peace operation. It will consist of a re-training programme to be conducted by the unit's training staff, and will be aimed at psychological 'unloading' and switching the mind-set of personnel back to that which is required for their primary role and functions.

SA Army background training for peace operations will be conducted at three levels:

At the technical level, all troops will receive Phase 1 background training as part of their basic and corps training.



At the tactical level, young career NCOs and officers will be trained in selected subjects related to UN peace operations, while a two-week peace operations package followed by a TEWT will be presented to officers on Junior Command and Staff Course.



At the operational level, the Senior Command and Staff Course includes a peace support operations package and a map exercise which was developed with the assistance of the UK Staff College, Camberley.

All subjects related to peace operations are taught according to the available UN guidelines for the training and preparation of units and personnel for participation in UN operations. The doctrinal approach is based on the latest information available from the UN.

6 THE SA ARMY COLLEGE

The mission of the SA Army College is to:

"With competent staff ... develop selected SA Army officers to become internationally accredited commanders and staff officers."

This means that the Army College strives to present command and staff training which is of such a high calibre that the competence of its graduates will be recognised by professional armies the world over. As such, the College should also attract an appropriate number of students from other countries. However, the official aim of the Army College is to "formally develop selected SA Army officers".

The primary functions of the College are military development and research and development. The military development of selected officers occurs through the presentation of the following:

senior command and staff training;


junior command and staff training; and


formative training for young career officers.

The research and development function focuses primarily on war gaming and doctrinal development in support of the tuition presented at the Army College. The College is supported by its own infrastructure and resources, including training and tuition facilities, messing and accommodation, and the type of training aids one would expect to find at any modern command and staff college.

6.1 Senior Command and Staff Duties Course

The senior course is conducted over a period of 10 months, which is divided into three terms.

Term 1 lasts 22 1/2 weeks, and is devoted to foundation studies at the higher tactical level on aspects such as management, warfare, problem solving, planning cycles and area defence. The latter provides a good background for peace operations, as it entails liaison with civilian police and other civilian departments of state.



Term 2 lasts 13 weeks, and is concerned mainly with operational level, advanced military studies and exercises on integrated operations, medium and short-term planning, peace operations, and joint and combined operations.



Term 3 is 8 weeks in duration, and is concerned with practical exposure and group work at the strategic level. This term includes two major exercises; one on joint planning procedures, joint command and control, and contingency plans, and the other on force preparation and employment.

There are currently two Chinese students and one Brazilian student enrolled on the senior course. Four berths have been reserved for foreign students during 1997, and it is hoped that a number of students from other African countries will fill these places.

In 1995, the first two-week peace operations module was presented during the second term of the Senior Command and Staff Duties course. The aim of the subject "Peace Support Operations" was to provide students with the "knowledge, attitude and skills to execute the planning and control of peace support operations at the operational level with due consideration of strategic objectives". The syllabus included the following:

historical overview of the evolution of peace support operations;



the organisation, role and functions of international, regional, military and humanitarian organisations;



the role and functions of NGOs and PVOs in peace support operations;



concepts, principles, definitions and terminology pertaining to peace support operations;



case studies on strategic, operational and tactical lessons learned from peace operations;



contemporary approaches to peace operations and doctrinal issues;



the planning, control and conduct of peace support operations at the operational level; and



the principles and application of international humanitarian law.

During 1996, the above curriculum was refined, and a large two-week seminar and map exercise on peace operations was held. This upgraded second-term peacekeeping package was dubbed Exercise MORNING STAR, and conducted in order to achieve the following aim:

"To present a theoretical and practical orientation on the doctrine, planning, and command and control of peace support operations at the strategic, operational and tactical levels."

The five-day seminar was organised and presented by the SANDF, with the assistance of the Institute for Defence Policy. Papers were presented by local and international experts, and covered the following topics:

conflict resolution and preventive diplomacy;



the African peacekeeping environment (social, geographic and other factors);



the history and development of peace operations;



concepts and principles associated with peace operations;



the linkage between peacekeeping and peace building;



the UN Security Council and decision making on peace operations;



the relationship between troop-contributing countries, the Security Council and the UN Secretariat;



the legal framework for peace operations (Status of Forces Agreements, etc.);



the UN and regional organisations, with special reference to the OAU;



the political and military framework within the UN for the conduct of peace operations;



the planning, execution and termination of a UN peacekeeping operation;



medical support during peace operations;



financing peace operations;



personnel management;



operational concepts and issues during peacekeeping and peace enforcement operations;



challenges of contemporary multifunctional, multinational peace operations;



management, command, and control of peace operations;



rules of engagement;



the interface between peacekeeping and humanitarian operations;



the role of civilians in peace operations;



UN standby arrangements;



the UN logistical system;



emergency relief and peace operations;



the effective use of information during peace operations;



the relationship between peacekeepers, host governments and the local population;



refugees in peace operations;



lessons learnt with peacekeeping in Africa;



planning for peace operations at the Department of Defence level;



training for peace operations;



developments within Southern Africa (the SADC, the Organ and the ISDSC);



co-operation in Southern Africa for the conduct of peace operations; and



the evolving SA National Defence Force doctrine for peace support operations.

An international and local panel of experts assisted the College Directing Staff in running the practical exercise during the week following the seminar. Exercise MORNING STAR was presented with the assistance of the UK Staff College, Camberley, and is based on the exercise developed by that college, which has been presented at a number of venues and in a number of staff colleges in Africa. The exercise was adapted by the SA Army College to run for a full five days, and also to reflect the realities of the SA National Defence Force and the existing configuration of defence and security arrangements in Southern Africa.

Exercise MORNING STAR was attended by a total of 204 participants. These participants included not only students on the Senior Command and Staff Duties course, but also:

senior officers from all arms of service and staff divisions of the SANDF;



representatives from the Department of Foreign Affairs (4);



United Nations officials (5);



NGO representatives (10);



senior officers from the armed forces of Southern African countries which are ISDSC members (22); and



twenty-five guest speakers.

During the debriefing conducted on the planning and conduct of Exercise MORNING STAR, the SA Army College acknowledged the success of the exercise and undertook to follow a similar approach to future peacekeeping training at the Senior Command and Staff Duties level. However, the College made a number of recommendations for improving and refining the two-week peace support operations package for 1997. These include:

integration of the theory which was presented during the seminar week with the practical exercises of the second week (this would break the tedium of lectures and enable more immediate practical application of theoretical knowledge);



the invitation of not only military, but also civilian representatives from other ISDSC member states;



greater involvement in and ownership of the exercise by representatives of other ISDSC member states (through, for example, inviting them to chair certain sessions);



a greater focus on the theory and practice of international humanitarian law;



a stronger focus on Africa and greater utilisation of African experts (including Directing Staff from other African command and staff colleges);



a reduction in the number of participants in order to promote discussion and enhance the exchange of ideas on critical aspects; and



greater civilian participation by South Africans, e.g. from the Department of Foreign Affairs, the Police Services and National Intelligence.

6.2 Junior Command and Staff Duties Course

The Army College annually presents three courses of six months duration at the junior command and staff level. There are, on average, approximately 40 students on each of these courses. Two courses, each comprising approximately 80 students, are scheduled for 1997. The Junior Command and Staff Duties course consists of two modules; 20 weeks devoted to training as unit commanders (including conventional warfare, area defence operations and peace support operations), and 4 weeks devoted to training as staff officers. The UN background peacekeeping training package runs for seven full days, and is modelled largely on the Senior Command and Staff Duties package outlined above. However, the practical exercises focus far more heavily on the tactical (unit commanders') level than on the strategic and operational levels. This is dictated by the shorter period of time allocated and the immediate needs of officers at this level of training. For SA Army officers, a Junior Command and Staff Duties qualification is a pre-requisite for entrance to the Senior Command and Staff Duties course.

7 COMMENTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS BY SA ARMY COLLEGE

The Army College would like to see a much greater degree of regional co-operation in terms of peacekeeping training at the command and staff level. This may entail an exchange of Directing Staff and possibly students during the peace support operations phases at the staff colleges of ISDSC members and other countries.

There is also a need for liaison between African staff colleges with respect to the contents and subjects of peace support operations curricula, as well as the scheduling of peace support operations study phases in order to identify mutual opportunities for training exchanges.

Links should be maintained between South Africa, other ISDSC countries, the OAU and the UN with respect to training objectives, curriculum development, training methods, etc.

More emphasis should be placed on joint training for all arms of service.