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An Overview of the Armed Forces of the TBVC Countries*
INTRODUCTION
This article presents a brief historical overview of the development and present status of the armed forces of Transkei, Bophuthatswana, Venda and Ciskei (TBVC countries). It represents as complete a record of these forces as has yet been published. It should be noted however, that no attempt has been made to place the facts within a broad context, apart from a brief discussion of the development of the forces and their involvement in domestic political issues. More quantitatively, the composition and strength of each of the TBVC defence forces are listed. Outlines, rather than exhaustive inventories, of the military and support equipment of the forces is also provided. Finally, defence expenditure figures are provided where these are available.
All four of the TBVC forces were established by the South African Defence Force (SADF) and have, to varying degrees, adopted SADF training systems and standards. For this reason the SADF has been used as a benchmark in the determination of comparable standards. However, the constantly changing SADF course and promotion systems complicates any ready comparison in terms of SADF qualification requirements.
THE CISKEI DEFENCE FORCE
History
The Ciskei Defence Force (CDF) originated from 141 Battalion of the SADF. It was established during March 1981 as part of 21 Battalion in Lenz. The CDF itself was formally established on 4 December 1981 with the independence of Ciskei. At that stage it consisted of 240 soldiers, 40 members of the military band and an additional 38 members seconded from the SADF who formed the leadership element. Initially the seconded officers and other ranks from the SADF both trained and effectively commanded the CDF.
Together with the police, traffic police, prison services and the Ciskei Intelligence Services, the CDF was grouped under the umbrella of the Ciskei Department of State Security under Lt. Gen. Charles Sebe. In June 1983 the CDF became an independent government department with its own deputy minister, and from 1 April 1986 it had its own minister.
During June 1981 the first elements of the future CDF headquarters occupied their offices in Zwelitsha and subsequently moved, during December 1981, to Izele Convent, which is now known as Jong'umsobomvu. The Ciskei Battalion was initially housed in tents at Sandile Military Training Area, but eventually moved, first to Jong'umsobomvu and, during November 1983, to the Bisho Military Base.
Following an agreement between President Lennox Sebe and Gen. Bar-David, 64 advisors from Israel were sent to Ciskei during February 1984 and divided between various government departments, including the CDF. This soon resulted in tensions between the visitors and the seconded SADF personnel.
In 1984, after shooting incidents at Sandile military training base, and upon the advice of the Israeli security advisors from the company Tamus, President Lennox Sebe requested the removal from Ciskei of three seconded SADF officers, including the commander, Brig. A.A. Nel. This occurred on 9 January 1985 and the SADF subsequently withdrew the rest of their seconded personnel who numbered between 10 and 15 persons. Major-General N.D. Mlandu succeeded Brig. Nel as commander of the CDF. During August 1985 the Israeli advisors were also requested to leave the country.
There was very little contact between the CDF and SADF in subsequent years. Much of the efforts of the CDF appeared to be orientated towards countering the political threat posed to President Lennox Sebe by Charles Sebe. These fears were not without some foundation for, on 19 February 1987, a truckload of armed men from Transkei unsuccessfully attacked the Bisho home of the Ciskei president, Chief Lennox Sebe. The purpose of the raid was apparently to replace Chief Lennox Sebe with Chief Lent Maqoma who was more sympathetic to South Africa, and aligned to Charles Sebe. Once soldier from the Transkei Defence Force died and three TDF vehicles were destroyed in the attack.
During late 1987 Brig. S. Zwelendaba replaced Lt. Gen. N.D. Mlandu as commander of the CDF. During the following year relations with South Africa improved. Members of the CDF were again allowed to attend SADF courses in South Africa. At this stage Colonel Oupa Gqozo was military attaché in Pretoria (from 1 April 1988 with the rank of brigadier), an appointment which followed that of deputy commander of the CDF. Brigadier Gqozo returned to Ciskei as Chief of Staff Intelligence during December 1989/January 1990.
On 4 March 1990 a coup against Chief Lennox Sebe took place under the leadership of Lt. Col. Jamangile (the second in command of 1 Ciskei Battalion in Bisho) and a Capt. Zantzi, during which various Sebe loyalists were removed, including Brig. Zwelendaba and Brig. Sixishe (the second in command of the CDF). Apparently, this move was intended to forestall a similar coup attempt by Lt. Gen. Kwane Sebe at a time when Chief Lennox Sebe was overseas. (Kwane Sebe was the commander of the Elite Unit, a type of national intelligence service, which was subsequently disbanded.) Chief of Staff Intelligence, Brig. Gqozo, was requested to lead the new government. The military council of state was composed of Gqozo as chairman, and three others, including Lt. Col. S. Pita (presently the vice-chairman) who was commander of 1 Ciskei Battalion at the time. Col. Andrew Jamangile, the second in command of 1 Ciskei Battalion, was promoted to brigadier and appointed as Chief of the CDF on 1 April 1990. Initially the council adopted a tolerant attitude towards all parties, including the ANC but this was soon to change.
Violence erupted during the celebrations that followed the coup, particularly in Mdantsane, and upon the request of Brig. Gqozo the SADF entered Ciskei on 6 March to protect RSA persons and property.
In mid-1990 five lt. col.'s were seconded from the SADF to the CDF. An additional two colonels were recruited directly from the SADF The seconded SADF officers filled the following posts: Chief of Staff Personnel, Intelligence, Operations, Finance and Logistics. This increased efficiency and control dramatically. A number of former SADF officers also joined the CDF on contract as well as in a permanent force capacity.
On 28 January 1991 there was yet another coup attempt, this time unsuccessfully so, led by Lt. Col. Zantsi (SSO Intelligence). A number of military officers were arrested thereafter and Lt. Col. Poyo was appointed as acting commander of the CDF. The coup was apparently instigated by Charles Sebe and Onward Guzana, both of whom were killed in the aftermath of the coup attempt.
It would appear as if the two coups have reduced the number of trained, qualified and senior Ciskei officers substantially. Brig. Gqozo again requested additional SADF training and other assistance for the CDF. As a result, in April 1991 Brig. M. Oelschig was seconded from the SADF and took over as Chief of the CDF with Col. D.A. van der Bank as second in command. Van der Bank later joined the CDF in a permanent capacity. These developments assisted in professionalising the CDF. As is the case in Bophuthatswana and Venda, the SADF followed a system whereby it identified a CDF understudy for each of its officers, with a clear programme of affirmative action.
In April/May 1991 former SADF colonel Jan Breytenbach (of 32 Battalion) and a number of colleagues arrived in Ciskei under private contract to establish a Parachute Regiment. Financial resistance to the project (which would have cost R52 million) on the part of South Africa eventually led to its severe curtailment and, after a confrontation between members of the CDF, Breytenbach and his colleagues left Ciskei.
Then, on 7 September 1992, came the Bisho incident, a confrontation between marchers and the CDF when a group of ANC demonstrators attempted to outflank the CDF forces deployed to counter any march on Bisho. The CDF opened fire, leaving scores of people dead and injured. Following this, the houses of ninety soldiers were destroyed. Terror had provoked counter-terror. The CDF suffered a crisis in morale and, in the events that followed, Brig. Oelschig was replaced by Brig. Van der Bank as Chief of the CDF.
Composition
In terms of the Defence Act (No. 17 of 1986) the mission of the CDF is to maintain the national integrity of the Republic of Ciskei. To this end, its tasks are, inter alia:
- to defend the constitution;
- to defend and protect the people of Ciskei; and
- to uphold the government of the day.
At present Brigadier Oupa Gqozo is Chairman of the Council of State and Commander in Chief of the CDF as well as Minister of Police. The Minister of Defence and Vice-Chairman of the Council of State is Colonel S.S. Pita. Brigadier D.A. van der Bank is the Chief of the CDF. The deputy commander is Lt. Col. Matyila. Personnel seconded from the SADF fill the posts of Chief of Staff Personnel, Finance, Logistics, as well as that of commander of the Air Wing. A total of five seconded SADF officers serve with the CDF. There are also about 13 former SADF members in the CDF, of whom four have joined the CDF and nine are on contract.
The most senior Ciskei (i.e., non-former SADF) officer is a colonel, qualified to about company commander by SADF standards, two lt. col.'s are qualified as unit commanders. Two more lt. col.'s are qualified to the rank of major. There are two majors. Also, there are a number of Ciskei senior non-commissioned officers, some of whom are fairly well qualified by SADF standards.
The CDF is only a permanent force system. The entry requirements for the CDF since 1989 is matric. All leader group and functional courses are conducted either by the SADF or by SADF personnel within Ciskei. Training conducted in the SADF is paid for by Ciskei, as is the case for all the TBVC countries. The CDF has, as far as Ciskei officers are concerned, followed an expansive promotion system until recently. This exacerbated problems of efficiency experienced within the CDF and was curtailed.
In total the force numbers about 2 000, which is not significantly more than the figure of 1 750 during January 1989.
Defence Headquarters was, until recently at Jong'umsobomvu (14km outside King William's Town), but has recently moved to the parliament buildings at Bisho. The following elements are still at Jong'umsobomvu:
- a Logistic Depot. This unit consist of the following elements: detention barracks, a maintenance and construction unit, a composite depot and military police. The composite logistic depot deals with all logistic aspects in a centralised manner, including general equipment, uniforms, daily maintenance, rations, fuel, etc.
- a Maintenance and Construction Unit (road repair capacity, minor construction and base repair); and
- a Training Centre.
There is also a VIP protection unit which is responsible for the personal protection of all ministers and their houses/farms. This is stationed at the Council of State.
One Ciskei Battalion is stationed at Bisho (900 men) with:
- 3 companies of which 2 have Mamba mine-protected vehicles
- a small support company
- a large Light Workshop Troop and signals workshops which serve the whole of the CDF
Two Ciskei Battalion (700 men) is stationed at Keiskammahoek. It has
- 3 companies also with Mamba mine-protected vehicles; and
- a small support company.
There is a special forces/parachute company at Bulembu, the core of a possible future parachute regiment.
The Air Wing is situated at Bisho airport (Bulembu) with:
- two Skyvan light transport aircraft for paratroopers and general air transport';
- three BK 117 MMB helicopters;
- three light fixed wing aircraft for communication flights, etc. (Cessna 150);
- two Islander for personnel and freight transport; and
- a Piper Cub
The Ciskei military band is also stationed at Bulembo and falls under the Air Wing for administrative purposes.
There are semi-permanent company bases at Alice and Kama/Whittelsea (close to Queenstown).
There are also Auxiliary Services for which the CDF provided training and certain administrative functions. These Services are tasked with the protection of chiefs and headman. These forces are controlled by structures within the Council of State.
There is also a decentralised medical and signals element.
The CDF is equipped for counter-insurgency (COIN) operations. The CDF has one 88 mm field gun for ceremonial purposes and uses R4/R5 assault rifles. The 7,62 mm Light Machine Gun issued is the SS-77. Other armaments include the 40 mm Multiple Grenade Launcher, 60 mm and 81 mm mortars and 7,62 mm Browning. Vehicles include Mambas, Buffels, Samil 20, seven ton Isuzu trucks and 4x4 vehicles.
The revised estimates of defence expenditure for Ciskei for 1991/2 is R76 883 000; for 1992/93 it is R89 027 000; and the defence budget for 1993/94 is R99 910 000.
THE TRANSKEI DEFENCE FORCE
History
Originally the SADF did not plan to provide Transkei with anything except a home guard. But Prime Minister Chief K.D. Matanzima pushed for an own Defence Force and the Transkei Defence Force (TDF) was established in 1975. Transkei became independent in 1976. The SADF assisted with training of the TDF until 1978 when the then State President, Chief Kaiser Matanzima, terminated the services of Brig. Pretorius and his seconded staff from the SADF. They returned to South Africa amidst accusations of running a parallel administration system, one for whites and another for blacks. Brig. Pretorius had established a battalion base to the west of Umtata and, upon establishment, the TDF had received a gift of equipment for an infantry company from the SADF.
With the re-establishment of relations between South Africa and Transkei in 1981/2, the TDF received a second gift of equipment from the SADF to the value of about R2 million to replace the original equipment which had been badly run down.
In 1982 the Minister of Defence and Prime Minister, G.M Matanzima, announced the employment of a group of expatriate advisors from the former Rhodesia. The group of about 30 former Rhodesians had actually commenced employment in Transkei in March 1981 under the auspices of the Security Services Transkei Company (SST). Chief K.D. Matanzima retired as State President in February 1986 and was succeeded by his brother, Chief George Matanzima.
On 19 February 1987 a truckload of special forces from Transkei unsuccessfully attacked the home in Bisho of the Ciskei President, Chief Lennox Sebe. The raid from the Transkei was, apparently, under the overall control of the former members of the Rhodesian Security Forces, although Prime Minister George Matanzima refused to admit Transkeian involvement in the raid. It appeared to be aimed at the overthrow of Chief Lennox Sebe but failed. This, together with resistance to the raid from elements within the Transkei, played an important role in the ascendance to power first of Ms. Stella Sigcau and later Maj. Gen. Bantu Holomisa.
In April 1987, the contracts of 27 white army officers, including the former Rhodesians, were terminated and a group of 20 of these men, including their commander, Maj. Gen. Ron Reid Daly, were expelled from the country. Rumours of a coup attempt by former State President Kaiser Matanzima followed the expulsions and the botched raid earned Transkei the enmity of South Africa which had considered the ex-Rhodesians to be a stabilising factor.
At the same time as the expulsion, Chief George Matanzima announced that Brig. Holomisa, who had been released as a result of public pressure after nine weeks detention, would be promoted to the rank of major general and would succeed General Zondwa Mtirara as commander of the TDF, who resigned. Brig. Holomisa was detained by the Government apparently on the grounds that he was agitating against the role of white officers in the TDF as well as stirring disaffection on the basis of corruption within the Matanzima government.
On 23 September 1987 TDF soldiers served resignation letters on the Transkei cabinet. Chief George Matanzima officially resigned on 2 October in the wake of mounting proof of corruption. Ms. Stella Sigcau was elected as the new Prime Minister but the TDF took over the administration of the Transkei in a bloodless coup on 30 December 1987, after only 86 days. Maj. Gen. Holomisa declared martial law and suspended the Transkei constitution, alleging that Ms. Sigcau had also been involved in corruption. A military council was formed which is still in power today.
Composition
The present mission of the TDF is to:
- assist the civil authorities in the maintenance of law and order;
- suppress any form of unrest, and terrorism, irrespective of its origin;
- assist with civil administration in times of national disorder and with the maintenance of essential services; and
- defend Transkei against foreign invasion.
The minimum educational requirement for entry into the TDF is matric.
At present the TDF conducts all its own training apart from junior and senior staff courses and pilot training. In most cases TDF officers attend training at SADF institutions (against payment) although TDF members have attended courses in Taiwan and most recently in India and Ghana (a senior staff course in the case of the latter). Approximately 30 members of the TDF travelled to India for various lower level training courses. These courses included signals, mortars and platoon commander training, as well as the 18 months basic officer training course for graduates.
Non-commissioned officer career path. Basic training lasts 9 months after which the recruit can apply to join the permanent force. Should he be selected, he stays a rifleman for 2 years and can be promoted on merit to lance corporal. Following an additional two years of training courses and on the job training he can be promoted to corporal and two years thereafter, to sergeant. After 10 years of training courses and experience the member may attend the senior non-commissioned officer course in the TDF or SADF as a staff-sergeant.
Officer training also follows the 9 months basic training course. It commences with one year's regimental experience after which the candidate attends the officer selection board. If selected a 13 months basic officer training course follows and the individual is commissioned with the rank of second lieutenant. After another year's regimental experience, promotion to full lieutenant follows. As a lieutenant the officer must complete a platoon commander's course and pass a lieutenant-to-captain promotion examination. Following these, he can be promoted to captain. Next comes either a battalion second in command course in Transkei or in the SADF or battalion mortars (81 mm) in the TDF or the SADF. This, in turn, is followed by a company commander's course (Transkei or SADF) and an examination to qualify for the rank of major. Junior Staff Courses occur within the SADF or Air Force. Next is the senior staff course. The SADF allows 4 places per year on each course. After this the officer can go on the SA Army staff course in Pretoria as lt. col. to qualify as colonel.
Ten Transkei brigadiers have completed the senior staff course at the SA Army College and four brigadiers have completed the senior staff course at the SA Air Force college. Maj. Gen. Matanzima (the acting commander of the TDF) and a Col. Lobanda recently completed the 10 month senior staff course in Ghana. Two colonels are presently on the same course. No TDF member has, as yet, attended a joint staff course in the SADF or any other force.
Currently, the active strength of the TDF is around 3 500 to 4 000 men, well up on the 2 300 men serving in early 1989. Nominally, additional paramilitary and reserves (former TDF members) amount to an additional 3 300 men, but these reserves are not organised into units, nor are they called up for any reserve duties. There have recently been a large number of promotions within the TDF, presumably in preparation for the integration of forces. As a result the TDF has 2 major-generals, 10 brigadiers, about 19 colonels, etc.
Defence headquarters (about 170 strong, all told) is home to the acting commander, the acting chief of staff (Brig. Ntshinga) and various staff departments. These include the directors of personnel, logistics, intelligence, operations, finance, planning and the inspector-general (all brigadiers). Also based at Defence Headquarters is the Director of the Air Wing and the Director Special Forces. Included within the various directorates are the legal, finance, medical, signals and military police sections.
Combat Units comprise One Transkei Battalion (located at Umtata - a COIN unit); Special Forces Regiment (Port St. Johns); One Mounted Battalion (Maluti/Matatiele); and Military Police Depot (Provos unit at Port St. Johns).
- One Transkei Battalion is a light infantry battalion, with 4 normal companies, a support company (with 81 mm mortars and 12,7 mm medium machine guns) and an administrative or logistic company. The commander is a lt. col. The TDF does not have any mine-protected vehicles and One Transkei Battalion uses soft-skinned Mercedes Benz trucks. The Battalion is close on 1 000 strong.
- The Special Forces unit has 3 groups with a base group and its strength is estimated at between 300 and 500 men.
- One Mounted Battalion has 3 squadrons each equivalent to a company and a headquarters squadron. The commander is a lt. col. Total strength is about 500 men.
- The Military Police is around 100 strong, commanded by a major.
Combat Support Units include the school of Infantry, Air Wing and Signals Unit.
- The Transkei School of Infantry is based at Umtata with a strength of roughly 350 men, excluding those under training. The commander is a colonel. The School is composed of a number of wings. The Tactical Wing conducts all infantry courses up to company commander level, including support weapons training. The Regimental Wing performs regimental and ceremonial duties. There is a Headquarters Wing as well as a Cadet Wing. The latter provides training for officer cadets in the form of a 13 month course. The Recruit Wing conducts basic training which takes 9 months. The School of Infantry also has a demonstration company which undertakes guard duties and demonstrations, assisting One Transkei Battalion when necessary. The rest of the School is comprises a quartermaster section, stores, etc.
- The Air Wing is made up of fixed wing and rotary wing companies, a defence company, parachute company, technical wing, headquarters and a fire section. It is situated at Umtata and commanded by a lt.-col. Aircraft are one CASA 212 (originally two, but one was involved in an accident) and two BK 117 helicopters.
- One Signal Unit in Umtata is roughly 80 men strong and is commanded by a lt. col .
Logistic Support Units compose One Maintenance Unit (Umtata) which includes a Light Workshop Troop, transport section, ordnance stores, construction company, catering company and armouring section. Its strength is around 500 men. There is also a TDF Institute, similar to the South African Defence Force Institute (SADFI) in the SADF, which provides a retail outlet for military personnel.
Some discussion and planning has taken place in preparation for the establishment of a small coastal patrol unit as well as the establishment of Two Transkei Battalion.
There are also a number of divers within the TDF, but essentially their duties are life-saving.
The TDF is equipped for COIN operations and most of the equipment is of the light infantry type. Equipment includes R1 and R4 rifles, light machine guns, light mortars, mine-protected vehicles (around 14 Buffels), about 40-50 soft skinned trucks, and so on.
The defence estimate of the TDF for 1990/91 was R91 080 000 (actual expenditure R100 659 435); for 1991/92 it was R91 776 000 (actual R85 169 426); for 1992/93 it was R117 875 000 (actual R167 256 381), and the budget for 1993/94 is R165 500 000.
THE BOPHUTHATSWANA DEFENCE FORCE
History
A Bophuthatswana (Bop) National Guard, some 125 men strong, was trained by the SADF in time for independence in 1977 and handed over to Bop., together with some equipment when that country became independent on 6 December 1977. Initially the National Guard performed ceremonial duties and resided directly within the office of the President (this arrangement was also for budgetary purposes). A seconded SADF officer, Brig. Riekert, served as military advisor to President Lukas M. Mangope. In time an embryonic department of defence was developed, eventually resulting in the establishment of the Bophuthatswana Defence Force (BDF) on 30 November 1979 with Brig. Riekert as Minister of Defence and (then) lt. col. Jack Turner as chief of the BDF.
The BDF grew steadily in the years that followed, with the training wing of One Infantry Battalion eventually becoming the Military School and the Light Workshop Troop developing into the Technical Services Unit. From the time of its establishment the BDF has attempted to establish blanket coverage over the Bop. territory in the absence of a commando system like that of South Africa's defence force.
According to members of the BDF the establishment of the Bophuthatswana National Security Unit (BNSU), as an addendum to the BDF in 1986, contributed to the aborted coup attempt on 2 February 1988. The BNSU's primary responsibility was the provision of security of buildings, etc. Although not a military unit, it fell under the administrative control of the BDF. One particular subject of contention was the low entry requirements for the BNSU compared to those of the BDF, resulting in considerable dissatisfaction. After the coup was thwarted through the intervention of the SADF, Brig. Riekert resigned as Minister of Defence and President Mangope personally took over the defence portfolio. The BNSU was disbanded and a small number of former BNSU members were allowed to join the BDF. For practical reasons a Defence Committee under the chairmanship of Minister Rowan Cronje was established to assist the Chief of the BDF in dealing with welfare and social issues, since these were considered to be the most important sources of the dissatisfaction which had contributed to the coup attempt. Minister Cronje subsequently took over the defence portfolio in 1991. Although the Defence Committee still exists, it now plays a lesser role in the management of the BDF.
Composition
The active strength of the BDF is about 4 000 men. A distinction could be made between about 1 900 members in the various combat forces and about 1 700 in the support services. There are around 120 personnel in the Air Force and the normal contingent of headquarters staff members (about 400) at various levels.
The present Chief of the BDF is Maj. Gen. H.S. Turner. In his office he also has the BDF Sergeant-Major and a personal staff officer/ombudsman. The Deputy Chief of the BDF is Brig. J.L. Jordaan. Within the office of the Deputy Chief is a Senior Staff Officer Management Services (lt. col.) and the BDF Headquarters Unit. Both Gen. Turner and Brig. Jordaan are former members of the SADF who have joined the BDF.
The BDF headquarters consists of a Chief of Staff Personnel (including the Chief Military Law Officer, Military Police and sport sections), Chief of Staff Intelligence, Chief of Staff for Communication Operation (COMOPS, which includes the BDF Band and Entertainment Group), Chief of Staff Operations (who controls the BDF Task Force), Chief of Staff Training (in control of the Military School at Molopo), Chief of Staff Logistics (who is responsible for the BDF Depot, One Maintenance Unit and Technical Service Unit), Chief of Staff Finance, Chief of Staff Medical Services (with an Operational Medical Wing and Medical Stores), Senior Staff officer (lt. col.) telecommunications, and Chief Chaplain. The Military School is at Military Base Molopo. The BDF Supply Depot was recently established at the old Mafikeng Air Base after the establishment of Air Force Base Mmabatho.
The BDF Task Force constitutes the immediate reaction force, previously part of the airborne troops, and is made up of specialists in reconnaissance work.
The BDF Air Force is situated at Air Force Base Mmabatho which was commissioned on 28 November 1992. Chief of the Bop. Air Force, Brig. M.P. Janse van Rensburg, falls directly under the Chief of the BDF. The Air Force Base Mmabatho houses a Transport Wing (operating CASA 212, CASA 235 and Pilatus PC 6 fixed wing types), a Helicopter Wing (two Allouette lll and two BK 117 types) and a Training Wing equipped with the Pilatus PC 7 (3 in number). The PC 7 is also the aircraft of the newly established Leopard Aerobatics Team. The one Pilatus PC 6 in the inventory can transport 9 personnel, the two CASA 212 can each transport 20 personnel, and the single CASA 235 can carry 48 paratroopers. During 1992 the Bop. Air Force introduced its first pilot training course and it was expected that four pupil pilots would qualify in September 1993.
The mine-protected vehicles of the BDF are the Buffel (estimated to number about 50), Nkwe (about 20) and Mamba Mk's ll and III (about 20) types.
Since 1990 Bophuthatswana has been divided into three Military Areas, each of which falls under the command of the Chief of the BDF.
- One Military Area within which falls One Infantry Battalion (a COIN unit based at Molopo) and the BDF Parachute Battalion (at Lehuru Tshe). The Parachute Battalion has one parachute company (of more than normal strength) and two infantry companies. Originally training for this battalion took place at One Parachute Battalion in Bloemfontein in 1989.
- Two Military Area within which falls Two Infantry Battalion (a COIN unit at Mankwe), Military Base Bafokeng (a company group) and Military Base Odi (another company group).
- Three Military Area within which falls Military Base Thaba'Nchu (a company group) and Military Base Taung (also a company group). Should a third battalion be established in the future, it would probably be based in this area.
For four years the BDF has restricted its annual intake to 100 recruits. These members largely maintain the strength of the force. In the 1992/3 financial year 1 247 members of the BDF received training within the BDF, while 200 members attended courses in South Africa. During 1993 the BDF conducted its first parachute training course, at its own Parachute Training Wing.
Cadet training has begun in all regions. During 1992, 500 cadets from 56 schools were trained compared to 398 in 1991. In 1993 this figure is expected to increase to 700.
In 1990 there numbered around 16 seconded SADF officers in the BDF, and by 1993 there were just 10 such members. There are no other ranks seconded from the SADF to the BDF. A total of 30 former SADF officers (of whom 11 are in the Air Force) serve within the BDF as well as 7 other ranks.
Senior black officers are numerous. There are two Batswana colonels, both of whom have passed the SA Army Staff course. One temporary colonel has completed Junior Staff Duties. There are 7 lt. col.'s of whom 5 are qualified to SADF standards; 20 majors of whom 16 are qualified to SADF standards; and 52 captains, of whom 46 are qualified to SADF standards.
Present entry standards into the BDF date from 1986. The basic entry requirement for consideration for a permanent officer appointment is a matric certificate, the candidate must be between 18 and 35 years in age, and must pass various psychometric tests, etc. Any other recruit requires at least a standard 8 certificate (since 1988). A criminal or military disciplinary record is a disqualification. Since 1992 recruits have been signed on for a minimum period of at least 3 years following which the recruit can apply for a permanent appointment. All appointments, officer and other ranks, are for an initial probationary period of 12 months.
The 1993/4 defence budget vote was R177,8 million, an increase of 19,7% over the previous year. According to Minister Rowan Cronje, 78 percent of the budget was accounted for by salaries, allowances, medical care, transport, clothing, rations, etc. A further 14 percent provided for the daily running costs and the maintenance of infrastructure. The remainder of the defence budget, some R15 million, was used for development (vehicles, ammunition, communication equipment and armaments). The budget for 1991/92 was R138,2 million and actual expenditure was slightly lower. The budget for 1992/3 was R156,3 million and actual expenditure totalled R155,8 million.
THE VENDA DEFENCE FORCE
History
A Venda National Force was established at the time of independence in 1979 which initially combined policing, prisons and defence functions. In 1981 the traffic policing component was removed from the National Force and placed under the Department of Justice. Though the fire brigade is still part of the Venda Defence Force (VDF), there are plans to hand them it over to the civilian government.
The VDF was formally established separately from the National Force on 27 September 1982 when 112 Battalion in Madimbo (which fell outside the Venda territory) was disbanded within the SADF and re-established in the form of One Venda Battalion at Manenu. At that stage the battalion consisted of three companies and was essentially a light infantry battalion. Two Venda Battalion was established 1985/86. This battalion was initially housed in temporary quarters until appropriate permanent bases were completed in 1986-7.
Brig. Ramushwana, presently Chairman of the Council and Minister of Defence and National Intelligence, was second in command of the Venda Security Police before being transferred to the VDF as Chief of Staff by State President Mphephu, with the aim of his eventually succession as Chief of the VDF.
At the time of the bloodless coup on 5 April 1990, the then Colonel Ramushwana was attending the SADF Army Staff Course in Voortrekkerhoogte, Pretoria. Until that date the chief of the VDF was a seconded SADF officer, Brig. Steenkamp, with Ramushwana acting as his Chief of Staff. State President Ravele was the commander in chief and was advised by a Security Council. After the coup, Brig. Ramushwana became the chief of the VDF as well as Chairman of the Council of National Unity. A Security Working Committee (SEWOCOM) was established in place of the Security Council. The SEWOCOM consisted of Brig. Ramushwana as chairman, the Chief of Staff of the VDF, presently Col. W. Swanepoel, the Senior Staff Officer Intelligence, Senior Staff Officer Operations, the Police Commissioner, Director-General of the Venda National Intelligence, the Advocate-General and two other members of the Council of National Unity. The Committee deals with all security-related issues in Venda, including the quality of government since the coup followed wide-spread allegations of corruption and maladministration.
Composition
The VDF now consists of the following: Manenu (One Battalion), Maunavhathu (Two Battalion), Headquarters Unit, Air Wing, fire brigade (part of VDF). There is a signals, medical and technical element at each battalion, as well as Venda Defence Headquarters. Venda's Military hospital is at Two Battalion.
One Battalion has about 400 men in total, with 3 companies, and a support company which has, amongst other armaments, 81 mm mortars and machine guns as well as an anti-tank platoon. The Battalion is equipped with Buffel mine-protected vehicles.
Two Battalion has about 600 men replete with a support company and a larger medical and technical support element.
Both battalions are structured and trained for counter-insurgency duties, including area protection. They also act in support of the police.
The Military Headquarters of the VDF is at Sibasa and based on the SADF five-legged staff system with personnel, logistics, operations/training, finance, intelligence. The heads of all five staff divisions and the commander of the headquarters unit are seconded SADF officers.
At present there are about 24 seconded SADF personnel (lowest rank is staff sergeant), which is about half the number of such staff three years ago. In addition, a number of former SADF officers have also joined the VDF on a contractual basis. Included among these members are the commanders of One and Two Battalion which are seconded SADF officers with, in each case, a Venda second in command as understudy.
The VDF has about 40 to 50 Venda officers in total, with the highest rank (apart from Brig. Ramushwana) that of major (numbering about eight officers), although one lt. col. may be promoted by the end of this year. As is the policy in the other independent states, the SADF has attempted to institute an understudy system.
The VDF carries out its own basic training, section and platoon commander's and basic officer's course, while the rest is conducted mainly by the SADF. There are no Venda staff qualified officers, although Brig Ramushwana has completed F1 and F2 (i.e., the Junior Staff Course) and part of the army staff course in Pretoria. Five officers have completed F1 and two have completed F2. No Venda has become a warrant officer first class, but two are warrant officers second class and are under training to become Regimental Sergeant Majors for the two battalions.
Basic training lasts 12 months. The minimum educational requirement is standard 8 up to the rank of warrant officer. For officers the minimum educational requirement is standard 10. Similar to the BDF, the VDF has adopted a conservative approach to the expansion of its armed forces and the promotion of its leadership elements.
From 1982 to 1990 the annual intake of the VDF saw about 120 men selected to join. Budgetary constraints led to the discontinuation of the intake and preference was given to the expansion of the police force. Apparently, no expansion is taking place at present, with all plans for the extension of the VDF having been frozen.
The equipment of the VDF includes Buffels (estimated at about 35), Samils, and Land Rover vehicles. Weaponry includes R4 rifles, 81 mm mortars, 12,7 mm Browning Medium Machine Guns, 7,62 mm Light Machine Guns, RPG-7's, 60 mm mortars, etc. There are also three 88 mm fieldguns for ceremonial purposes.
The Air Wing boasts two BK 117 helicopters, one Alloutte lll, one CASA 212 and a Cessna Citation for government use. Lt. col. Esterhuizen heads the Air Wing which is based at Two Battalion.
The total strength of the VDF is about 1 800 men. There are no formal reserves, although there are about 500 former VDF members.
The defence budget for Venda in 1990/1 was R43,9 million (actual expenditure in that year was R43,8 million). For 1991/2, R44,4 was budgeted and R42,2 million was expended. For 1992/3, the budget amounted to R50,5 million and expenditure totalled R48,3 million. The 1993/4 budget of the VDF is R48,2 million.
CONCLUSION
There can be little doubt that the armed forces of the TBVC countries represent a significant repository of black officers and non-commissioned officers outside of the SADF. Given the requirement for affirmative action, and despite the obvious top-heavy leadership of these forces, these persons are probably set to play a significant role in a future defence force. This having been said, South Africa does not need, nor can it afford the armed forces that will result from the simple amalgamation of the SADF, the TBVC armed forces, MK, APLA, etc. Integration will have to go hand in hand with demobilisation and possibly an evaluation of qualification for rank accross the spectrum.
Even if the total defence budgets of the TBVC countries, roughly R500 million, is added to the existing SADF budget, it is doubtfull whether this will cater for the direct and indirect costs associated with a military in a transitional South Africa, given the costs of demobilisation, integration, internal deployment in support of the SA Police, the costs associated with the establishment and running of the sub-council of defence, etc. Clearly a great deal of additional research and planning is required.
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